California Energy Commission
Elaine Hebert, Erin Reese, Principal Authors
Lauren Mark, Contributing Author
Richard Anderson, Project Manager
James A. Brownell, Supervisor
Biology, Water and Soils Unit
Robert B. Haussler, Manager
Environmental Protection Office
Robert L. Therkelsen, Deputy Director
Energy Facilities Siting & Environmental
Protection Division
We are grateful to James Estep for the initial literature collection efforts. Over the years, Joan Humphrey, Martin Scheel, Katherine Bodeman-Wadsworth, and Dick Anderson continued the literature search. We could not have gathered such a diversity of books, reports, and articles without the dedicated and professional assistance of Diana Watkins and Mary Chilcote in the California Energy Commission's in-house library. We thank you all for your untiring efforts.
We also extend thanks to Tino Flores and Sue Foster of the California Energy Commission's Graphic Arts section for the cover design and final report format. We thank Julie Dinsdale for the cover artwork.
Finally, we thank Robert Haussler, James Brownell, Dave Maul and Dick Anderson for their editing assistance and for their support and encouragement throughout this project.
Richard L. Anderson
Wildlife Biologist
California Energy Commission
Sacramento, CA
September 20, 1995
ALPHABETICAL LISTING BY AUTHOR
Concerns regarding the causes and extent of avian mortality, locations of recurring incidents, and potential solutions have not always been adequately considered in the past. This compilation of literature on avian mortality will assist those industry and agency planners and researchers concerned with avoiding and resolving existing and future impacts of projects on avian species.
This bibliography contains entries mainly from 1876 to 1992, and the majority are from the United States. Most entries are taken from journals or periodicals, conference proceedings, government documents, private publications, utility company reports, books, academic theses, and newspaper articles. Copies of all items included in this bibliography are on file in the California Energy Commission's Environmental Protection Office.
Unless other ise noted, each item was read and annotated. Special attention was given to the following aspects of the reports: numbers of individual birds and species killed or injured, contributing factors, habitat and other locational characteristics, and design features of the structures which resulted in injuries or death.
Other annotated bibliographies on the subject of avian mortality at human-made structures are currently available. Two such documents from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service were used extensively for this publication; entries originating therefrom are noted by asterisks ("*" denotes Avery et al. 1978; "**" denotes Avery et al. 1980). The intent for this bibliography is to present an up-to-date compilation of the most significant articles available on the subject; periodic updates and reprinting of this report are planned. Please send notification of additional references and errors to "Avian Collision and Electrocution: An Annotated Bibliography" to the California Energy Commission, MS #40, 1516 9th Street, Sacramento, California 95814, USA. Suggestions to improve the format are also welcome.
This bibliography's format, modeled after Avery et al. (1978, 1980), is designed to be as efficient and as user-friendly as possible. Citations are other ed by subject matter, kinds of birds, locations, and authors; subject categories are broad and include the type of structures involved and the major topics discussed in the articles. The types of birds (taxonomic) are other ed according to family (e.g., warblers) or group (e.g., shorebirds). United States incidents are other ed by state within U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service regional boundaries, and incidents outside the United States are other ed under Africa, Asia, Australia and New Zealand, Canada, Europe, Pacific Isles, and South America and the West Indies.
Five kills totaling 25 birds of 16 species occurred at a 973-foot tower in Kentucky during fall 1965 in association with low pressure systems and frontal activity.
2. *Able, K.P. 1973. The changing seasons. American Birds 27(1):19-23.
In fall 1972, single night kills exceeding 1,000 birds occurred at TV towers in Tennessee and Florida, and two events occurred at the floodlit chimneys of the Lanais, Ontario, Canada, power plant.
3. Airola, D. 1987. Bird abundance and movements at the Potrero Hills wind turbine site, Solano County, California. Prepared for the Solano County Department of Environmental Management, Fairfield, California. Prepared by Jones and Stokes Associates, Sacramento, California. 43 pp.
"The proposed wind turbine site at the Potrero Hills, Solano County [California], was studied to determine use of the area by waterfowl, other waterbirds, raptors, and songbirds, and to assess potential for project-related impacts." Primary flight altitudes for the various bird groups were estimated through observations. Birds, especially raptors, songbirds, and gulls, often flew below the 30 m height of the proposed turbines, and collisions were determined likely for some species. The author finds the sites adequate as experimental and control sites for future monitoring if turbines are installed.
4. Alameda, Contra Costa, and Solano Counties, California. 1988. Request for proposals: a study of wind turbine effects on avian activity and habitat use. 17 pp.
This request for proposal represents a joint effort by Alameda, Contra Costa, and Solano Counties (California) "to provide information necessary for predicting and mitigating the potential impact to avifauna resulting from wind turbine construction and operation in wind resource areas." A summary of a California Energy Commission (CEC) workshop on wind turbine effects on avian activity and habitat use is included.
5. *Alsop, F.J., III and G.O. Wallace. 1969. Spring tower-kill in Knox County. Migrant 40(3):57-58.
Twenty casualties (ten species) were collected at the WTKV tower in Tennessee following the night of 7-8 May, 1969. A list of the losses is given including measurements of weight, length, tail, bill, tarsus, and gonad size. Weather data are also included.
6. *Andersen-Harild, P. and D. Block. 1972. Birds killed by overhead wires in some localities in Denmark. Dansk orn. Foren. Tidsskr. 67:15-23. (In Danish; English summary.)
During October 1971, bird losses were monitored along 13.1 km of power lines (60 kV, 150 kV, and smaller overhead wires) at four locations in Denmark. Most of the lines crossed reed beds or shallow water areas. Of the 105 casualties, 80 percent were found directly beneath the wires. The most lethal of the four sites had a "wall of wires" configuration (twelve wires at eight different levels) and averaged nine recovered birds per 24 hours per ten km of power line. About 60 percent of the total losses were of species nesting in the area (herons, ducks, shorebirds, gulls) and 40 percent were migrants (moorhens, owls, thrushes, starlings, songbirds). Swans, gulls, and certain shorebirds were particularly vulnerable but ducks were killed in relatively low numbers. One species of bittern that was involved, Botarus stellaris, is close to extinction in Denmark. Overhead wire systems should be regarded "as part of the correlation of the environmental factors which have a negative effect on bird populations."
7. Anderson, A.H. 1933. Electrocution of purple martins. Condor 35(1):204.
This article is an account of one male and one female purple martin found electrocuted by a power line at an irrigation reservoir near Tucson, Arizona.
8. Anderson, R.L., and J.A. Estep. 1988. Wind energy development in California: impacts, mitigation, monitoring, and planning. California Energy Commission, Sacramento. 12 pp.
Of 147 documented avian collision and electrocution incidents at California wind energy facilities from 1985 to 1988, 101 have been raptors. Of these, 34 were eagles and 58 were hawks. In the Altamont Pass, an average of 11 eagle and 17 hawk incidents occurred annually. Ninety-one percent of all documented avian mortality incidents resulted in mortality. This mortality information identified the need for further studies to better understand and resolve biological effects of wind projects.
9. Anderson, S.H., K. Mann, and H.H. Shugart, Jr. 1977. The effect of transmission-line corridors on bird populations. American Midland Naturalist 97(1):216-221.
"Observations of bird populations were made along transmission-line corridors of four different widths (12, 30.5, 61, 91.5 m) in areas in which the transmission line rights-of-way traversed typical eastern Tennessee deciduous forest." Detailed grid-mapping of individual bird sightings was done. The 12-meter corridors showed reduced species diversity while the 30.5-m corridor had high bird density and diversity. Wider corridors "were less diverse but attracted several open country bird species not characteristic of surrounding forest." The forest habitat had the highest species diversity.
10. *Anderson, W.L. 1978. Waterfowl collisions with power lines at a coal-fired power plant. Wildlife Society Bulletin 6(2):77-83.
An estimated 400 birds per fall season (0.4 percent of the peak number present) were killed by colliding with overhead power lines at the Lake Sangchris/Kincaid, Illinois, power plant during 1973-75. Blue-winged teal were the most vulnerable and mallards the least vulnerable to collisions. Factors believed to be responsible for losses include the number and species of birds present, lack of visibility of the lines, disturbances that startle birds into flight, and the degree of familiarity of the birds with the area. To reduce waterfowl losses in general, it is recommended that lines not be built over water, that lines not cross places where waterfowl are known to congregate, that the visibility of lines be enhanced, and that waterfowl not be disturbed in the vicinity of existing lines.
11. Anderson, W.W. 1975. Pole changes keep eagles flying. Transmission and Distribution 27:28-31.
Proliferation across the United States of high voltage transmission lines is considered a significant cause for the dwindling eagle population due to electrocution. In 1973, an estimated 300 golden eagles died on the country's power lines; 98 percent were young birds just learning to fly. "It was found that electrocution occurred exclusively on a single pole crossarm type construction where the conductors were nearly horizontal and had insufficient spacing." Golden eagles preferred poles where the crossarm was perpendicular to the prevailing wind and in a commanding topographical position. This can be taken into account by the power company to reduce the number of poles requiring modification. Tower nesting sites are a benefit of power lines to eagles in areas where other natural nest sites do not occur. Rather than destroying tower eyries, line workers can trim long sticks used in nest-building to clear the conductor and prevent outages.
12. Anonymous. 1954. Disaster in migration. Chat 18(4):104-105.
On 7 October 1954, a "rain" of small birds at several spots in the Southeast occurred. In Charleston, South Carolina, about 100 dead birds of 24 species were identified, and in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, 190 birds of 21 species were collected from near the respective airport ceilometers. Most of these birds were warblers. The catastrophe was attributed to a combination of "tumbling temperatures, overcast skies, ... stabbing beacons," and a cross-wind associated with a cold front.
13. *Anonymous. 1961. Large bird kills at TV towers. Bluebird 28(1):9.
A brief summary of two kills in Missouri is given: 658 birds (41 species) and one red bat at Columbia, on 24 September 1960, and about 100 birds (at least 16 species) at Cape Girardeau on 27 September 1960.
14. Anonymous. 1973. Eagle electrocution study underway. Idaho Wildlife Review (Sept./Oct.):16.
A collaborative study by six Western state utility companies looked at power lines and eagle electrocutions. The research indicated that some eagle deaths were from being shot then electrocuted; in one area, "15 of 17 apparent electrocutions turned out to be shootings." Recommended measures for preventing electrocution include shortening the ground wires that run down utility poles to earth, covering transformers and other energized parts, replacing steel crossarm braces with wood braces, and lowering or lengthening a crossarm.
15. Anonymous. 1978. Management recommendations - raptors. Unpublished in-house document, California Energy Commission, Sacramento. 37 pp.
This series of three annotated bibliographies lists documents dealing with electrocution and collision deaths of raptors, siting of power lines, and mitigation measures. Raptor mortality is cited as an impact to be considered in siting power lines; particularly problematic are lines on migration routes and near wintering grounds, resting areas, and communal roosts. Mitigation and management considerations are cited from various studies including environmental documents for power line and power plant construction. Recommendations include identifying utility pole structures causing the most electrocutions and increasing line visibility by attaching highly visible markers.
16. Anonymous. 1981. 500-kV towers are for the birds. Electrical World 195(7):27.
Large platforms were installed on Pacific Power and Light Company's 500-kV Oregon-Idaho AC line to prevent birds from nesting on the crossarm lattice members of utility poles and to protect insulators from excrement contamination and flashovers. The platforms became preferred nest sites for eagles.
17. *Arend, P.H. 1970. The ecological impact of transmission lines on the wildlife of San Francisco Bay. Prepared by Wildlife Associates for Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E), San Ramon, California. 24 pp.
This study of selected Pacific Gas and Electric steel tower transmission lines was conducted during June, July, and August 1970. While observing that "a few ducks obviously did occasionally hit the power lines," the author concludes, "...there can be no doubt that, qualitatively, the steel tower transmission line ecologically enhances rather than detracts from the wildlife environment."
18. Armbruster, M.J. 1990. Characterization of habitat used by whooping cranes during migration. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report 90(4).
Power lines were identified as influencing whooping cranes in their selection of roosting sites near rivers and wetlands in Nebraska. Participants in a workshop on this topic felt that power lines should be treated as a potential mortality factor for cranes with the minimum width of affected area at no less than 100 m.
19. *Arnold, J.R. 1960. Black rail in San Joaquin Valley of California. Condor 62(5):405.
A black rail was found dead on 26 August 1959 near Stockton, California, having apparently struck a fence or an overhead wire.
20. *Aronoff, A. 1949. The September migration tragedy. Linnaean Newsletter 3(1):1-2.
Mortality at the Empire State Building (over 200 birds, 30 species) on the night of 10 September 1948 is discussed, and a species list is provided. Also discussed are kills at a Nashville, Tennessee, airport ceilometer involving 248 birds of 35 species; at a Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, building (at least 11 species); and at a 450-foot tower in Baltimore, Maryland. A list of casualties from the Nashville incident is included.
21. Asplundh Environmental Services. 1979. Right-of-way ecological effects bibliography. Prepared for the Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California. EA-1080. Research Project 855-1. 246 pp.
This annotated bibliography contains 824 citations of documents describing ecological effects of overhead transmission line rights-of-way. The citations are other ed according to author, subject, and ecological region. Forty documents on bird mortality are included.
22. Association of Bay Area Governments. 1987. Small but powerful: a review guide to small alternative energy projects for California local decisions. Oakland, California. 66 pp.
Bird collisions and electrocutions with wind turbines and associated wires are cited as wind energy development impacts. "Although bird mortality rates are relatively low, even these rates may be significant for endangered raptors," notably the California condor, peregrine falcon, and bald eagle. Power lines near water have been found to be more hazardous than in other areas. Appropriate mitigation measures are discussed and techniques for protecting birds are given. Special attention is given to the California condor as a major source of conflict with wind farm development.
23. *Avery, M. and T. Clement. 1972. Bird mortality at four towers in eastern North Dakota: Fall 1972. Prairie Naturalist 4(3/4):87-95.
During fall 1972, 561 dead birds (88 species) and five red bats were collected at four towers in North Dakota, two of which exceed 2,000 feet and are reportedly the tallest in the world. (The species most frequently killed at the Omega tower, farther south and west than the other three towers, were characteristic of marsh and prairie grassland areas. Species killed near the other three towers were characteristic of forest and forest edge habitats.) Species lists of the casualties are given and scavenger activity at the sites is discussed.
24. *Avery, M., P.F. Springer, and J.F. Cassel. 1977. Weather influences on nocturnal bird mortality at a North Dakota tower. Wilson Bulletin 89(2):291-299.
Mortality at the 366-meter Omega tower in North Dakota in 1972 and 1973 is examined relative to nightly cloud and wind conditions. Most fall losses occurred under overcast skies associated with the passage of cold fronts as migrant species milled about the tower. However, 58 percent of the spring losses took place on non-overcast nights, mainly through collisions with outlying guy wires: rails and fringillids were killed mostly on non-overcast nights, while warblers died in greater numbers on overcast nights; warblers tended to be killed much closer to the central, lighted structure than were fringillids; and non-passerines suffered substantially greater losses far from the tower than did passerines, especially on non-overcast nights. Behavioral differences noted by other investigators are included as well.
25. Avery, M.L., ed. 1978. Impacts of transmission lines on birds in flight: proceedings of a workshop. Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. 31 January - 2 February 1978. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program. FWS/OBS-78/48. 151 pp.
Three major issues regarding the impact of transmission lines on birds are addressed: the magnitude of the problem, possible short-term solutions, and future (long-term) approaches. The proceedings include papers on migratory behavior and flight patterns, mitigation through engineering and design modification, studies of Bonneville Power Administration lines, impacts on waterfowl and eagles, transmission line engineering and its relationship to migratory birds, transmission line routes through water habitats, and a case study of the Klamath Basin. References, summaries, and a list of participants are included.
26. Avery, M.L., P.F. Springer, and N.S. Dailey. 1978. Avian mortality at man-made structures: an annotated bibliography. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program, National Power Plant Team. FWS/OBS-78/58. 108 pp.
This bibliography on avian mortality and human-made structures contains 853 international entries. Citations are other ed according to subjects, kinds of birds, and locations. "The majority of the reports include the number of individuals and species killed, with some observations of weather conditions at the time of the incident, bird behavior near the structure, or comments on the attraction of birds to lights."
27. Avery, M.L., P.F. Springer, and N.S. Dailey. 1980. Avian mortality at man-made structures: an annotated bibliography (revised). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program, National Power Plant Team. FWS/OBS-80/54. 152 pp.
This revised version of the 1978 bibliography contains 189 new international annotations for a total of 1,042 entries. Citations are other ed according to subjects, kinds of birds, and locations. "The majority of the reports include the number of individuals and species killed, with some observations of weather conditions at the time of the incident, bird behavior near the structure, or comments on the attraction of birds to lights."
28. *Bagg, A.M. 1957. The changing seasons. Audubon Field Notes 11(4):312-325.
Avian mortality in spring at towers in Jacksonville (300 birds) and Leon County (46 birds, 14 species), Florida, are mentioned.
29. *Bagg, A.M. 1965. The changing seasons; spring migrants: the few and the many. Audubon Field Notes 19(4):438-446.
On the night of 26 April 1965, in thick fog, 150-175 birds landed on the deck of a tanker off the New Jersey coast. The only casualties were 23 Cape May warblers that apparently struck the ship's superstructure.
30. *Bagg, A.M. 1969. The changing seasons. Audubon Field Notes 23(1):4-12.
During September and October 1968, kills were reported from towers in Manitoba, Canada, and the states of Wisconsin, New York, Ohio, Tennessee (1,800 ovenbirds among the casualties at Nashville), and Florida (853 birds of 80 species at WCTV near Tallahassee).
31. *Bagg, A.M. 1971. The changing seasons. American Birds 25(1):16-23.
Lists are given for 55 species killed during late September at the Empire State Building and eight towers in the eastern U.S.
32. *Bagg, A.M. and R.P. Emery. 1964. The fall migration: northeastern maritime region. Audubon Field Notes 18(1):7-17.
The casualties (over 488 birds, mostly warblers) and weather at a lighthouse in the Bay of Fundy during fall 1963 are discussed at length.
33. Baglien, J.W. 1975. Biology and habitat requirements of the nesting golden eagle in southwestern Montana. Thesis. Montana State University, Bozeman. 53 pp.
During the study (1972-1974), one bald eagle and one golden eagle were electrocuted during spring at power poles along the Madison Valley floor. The power poles may be considered preferred perching sites only during the wintering and spring seasons. Artificial perches were not found to be attractive to birds in mountainous areas where natural perches such as trees or rock outcroppings were readily available.
34. *Bailey, A.M. 1929. Bird casualties. Wilson Bulletin 41(2):106-107.
Two female woodcocks died from collisions, one against a building and the other with an overhead wire. A black-footed albatross on Laysan Island struck a wire and broke its leg.
35. *Baird, J. 1962. The changing seasons: a summary of the fall migration. Audubon Field Notes 16(1):4-6.
Over 10,000 collision casualties were reported from around the country during fall 1961. A tower in Eau Claire, Wisconsin, caused 5,097 of these casualties while two TV towers in Boston, Massachusetts, caused very few. Reports of negative findings are urged.
36. *Baird, J. 1964. The changing seasons. Audubon Field Notes 18(1):4-6.
During fall 1963, 33,406 birds were reported killed at towers and 488 at lighthouses in the United States and Canada. Most losses resulted from a single cold front that passed through Minnesota and southern Ontario during 18-21 September.
37. *Baird, J., R.I. Emery, and R. Emery. 1959. Fall migration: northeastern maritime region. Audubon Field Notes 13(1):11-13.
In Massachusetts, on the night of 19 September 1958, over 300 birds (mostly warblers and vireos) were killed at two Boston TV towers and over 200 (mostly warblers and flycatchers) died at a Springfield searchlight.
38. *Ball, R.E. 1973. Bird mortality at towers in Marysville, Missouri: Fall 1972.
Transactions, Missouri Academy of Science 7/8:294.
Three small towers (250, 400, and 408 feet tall) were checked for dead birds from 5 September to 16 November 1972. No large single-night kills were recorded, and altogether 71 birds of 33 species, mostly sparrows, were recovered. Most were believed to have collided with guy wires rather than the towers themselves. (Abstr.)
39. *Bamberg, J.B., R. Warriner, H.O. Todd, and H.C. Monk. 1935. Nocturnal migration in stormy weather. Migrant 6(4):77-80.
Birds heard and seen at an illuminated 100-foot water tower while migrating through Tennessee in poor weather are discussed. About 50 birds (10 species) were found dead in this late October incident.
40. *Banko, W.E. 1960. The trumpeter swan: its history, habits, and population in the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 214 pp.
Known trumpeter swan accidents seemed to be confined largely to striking power, telephone, or fence wires in flight. Most swan collisions with overhead cables and fences occurred during winter fogs. Five instances of wire collisions in Montana are mentioned; four out of five strikes were fatal.
41. Banks, R.C. 1979. Human related mortality of birds in the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Special Scientific Report: Wildlife No. 215. 16 pp.
Reports of mass mortality at radio and TV towers usually occur as a result of a particular weather pattern affecting a geographic area. Most reports of avian mortality at towers are based on single incidents of mass death, or at best, recoveries of dead birds over a short period of time. These are considered of little value in establishing an estimate of the number of birds that may be killed on an annual basis under "normal" conditions (i.e., "a single instance of spectacular mass mortality may far exceed the normal annual mortality"). Several studies cited support an annual mortality rate of 2,500 birds per tower on average.
42. *Barbour, R.W. 1961. An unusual bird mortality at Lexington. Kentucky Warbler 37(3):55.
Following the stormy night of 7 May 1961, 82 dead birds (21 species) were collected at a 670-foot tower in Lexington, Kentucky.
43. Batten, L.A. 1978. The seasonal distribution of recoveries and causes of blackbird mortality. Bird Study 25(1):23-31.
"Miscellaneous accidents" -- including "flew into power cables or telephone wires" -- were reported for 12,885 adult blackbird recoveries from 1909 to 1970 in Great Britain. Fewer birds were found dead during winter months.
44. *Baumgartner, F.M. 1959. Fall migration: southern Great Plains region. Audubon Field Notes 13(1):43-45.
On 11 October 1958, "a large box of birds" including marsh and sedge wrens was picked up at a TV tower in Dallas, Texas.
45. *Baumgartner, F.M. 1961. Fall migration: southern Great Plains region. Audubon Field Notes 15(1):54-56.
On 22 October 1960, of eleven yellow rails found beneath a Dallas, Texas, TV tower, eight were dead and three were injured.
46. *Baumgartner, F.M. 1963. Fall migration: southern Great Plains region. Audubon Field Notes 17(1):45-46.
An unspecified number of birds were killed at an Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, TV tower in September 1962.
47. Beaulaurier, D.L. 1981. Mitigation of bird collisions with transmission lines. Bonneville Power Administration, Portland, Oregon. 83 pp.
"In this study removal of overhead groundwires was evaluated as a technique for mitigating bird collisions with transmission lines." Two sites were utilized: Lower Crab Creek, Washington (a 500-kV single circuit line), and Bybee Lake in Portland, Oregon (a 230-kV double circuit line). "Earlier studies at these sites had documented small but measurable collision rates (i.e., number of collisions per number of flights) attributed primarily to collisions with groundwires." From fieldwork conducted October 1980 through March 1981, a total of seven dead birds and eight feather spots were found after groundwire removal; species included green-winged teal, northern pintail, greater scaup, American wigeon, glaucous-winged gull, European starling, red-winged blackbird, and song sparrow. "During pre-removal studies at these two sites, a total of 53 dead birds and 22 feather spots were found over two years of study." Collision rates in every case were less after groundwire removal; for both sites studied, the average reduction in bird collision mortality was approximately one-half. Although methodologies differed among studies, wire marking seemed to reduce collision mortality about as effectively as groundwire removal (average reduction of 45 percent) where comparisons were possible. Airway marker balls and/or high intensity lights may cause decreased bird use of nearby habitat. It is important that markers do not cause wind or ice loading which can interfere with line reliability.
48. Beaulaurier, D.L., B.W. James, P.A. Jackson, J.R. Meyer, and J.M. Lee, Jr. 1982.
Mitigating the incidence of bird collisions with transmission lines. Pages 539-550 in: Third Annual International Symposium on Environmental Concerns in Rights-of-Way Management, San Diego, California, 15-18 February 1982. State College, Mississippi.
Mortality was measurable at five of twelve transmission line sections studied "but was not a biologically significant cause of avian mortality." A prior study by Bonneville Power Administration showed that birds collided primarily with small-diameter overhead groundwires. These wires were removed from three lines to assess the effect on collision rates. Groundwire removal appeared to reduce collisions by about one-half. This is comparable to reductions attributed to marking of groundwires in other studies. "Because removal of groundwires is not practical in many cases, further development and testing of the effectiveness of various marking techniques is needed." A table of results of different studies marking groundwires and conductors is included.
49. Beecham, J.J. and M.N. Kochert. 1975. Breeding biology of the golden eagle in southwestern Idaho. Wilson Bulletin 87(4):506-513.
Cause of death was determined for golden eagles found along the Snake River canyon in southwestern Idaho from 1968 to 1971. Of 28 birds recovered, twelve were immature eagles found electrocuted.
50. Belisle, A.A., W.L. Reichel, L.N. Locke, T.G. Lamont, R.M. Prouty, R.B. DeWolf, and E. Cromartie. 1972. Residues in fish, wildlife, and estuaries: residues of organo- chlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and mercury. Pesticides Monitoring Journal 6(3):133-138.
Twenty-eight bald eagle carcasses were collected in 1969 and 11 in 1970 from 13 states to be analyzed for pesticide residues. Of these, four were concluded to have died from "impact" and two from electrocution.
51. Bellrose, F.C. 1971. The distribution of nocturnal migrants in the airspace. Auk 88(2): 397-424.
Following the overcast night of 30 September 1965, ten birds of eight species were picked up at a TV transmission tower near Peoria, Illinois.
52. *Benning, W.E. 1978. Region 3: Finger Lakes. Kingbird 28(1):42-44.
During the cloudy, rainy period of 20-24 September 1977, a record 3,862 birds were found dead at the Elmira, New York, TV tower. On the night of 19 September alone, 1,817 birds of 39 species were collected. Of the 48 total species, 24 were warblers.
53. Benson, P.C. 1980. Large raptor electrocution and powerpole utilization: a study in six western states. Raptor Research (Winter):125-126.
Subadult age classes of raptors suffer greater mortalities due to inexperience in flight ability and hunting methods. Habitat and season can have an effect on mortality rates. Hunting methods can affect electrocution risk: more electrocutions occur where the main prey base is cottontail rabbits than jackrabbits. More eagles were electrocuted in winter when snow caused feather-wetting and the birds "still-hunted" (perched and waited for prey to appear). The author recommends that pole configurations be modified where needed.
54. Benson, P.C. and J.C. Dobbs. 1985. Collisions of cape vultures (Gyps coprothers) with towers. Annual Meeting, Raptor Research Foundation, Sacramento, California, 9 November 1985.
Forty-nine cape vulture carcasses were found at the base of a tower at the Kransberg (Republic of South Africa) vulture colony. Orange spheres were attached to the guy wires "to warn the vultures" and during the following fledging season, collisions decreased.
55. *Benton, A.H. 1954. Relationships of birds to power and communication lines. Kingbird 4(3):65-66.
While acknowledging some losses of birds due to collisions with overhead wires, the author states that "power and communication lines now represent a valuable asset to bird life" in the form of nest and perch sites.
56. *Bernard, R.F. 1966. Fall migration: western Great Lakes region. Audubon Field Notes 20(1):45-46, 50-53.
On 6 September 1965, 7,085 dead birds (55 species) were collected at a tower near Eau Claire, Wisconsin. At least 500 birds died by striking lighted windows and a neon sign near Newberry, Michigan, on 26 September.
57. *Bierly, M.L. 1973. 1971 fall television tower casualties in Nashville. Migrant 44(1):5-6.
In what was described as an "average season," 990 birds (52 species) died at the WSM tower and 135 (24 species) at WSIX in Nashville, Tennessee.
58. *Bijleveld, M.F.I.J. and P. Goeldlin. 1976. Electrocution d'un couple de Buses. Nos Oiseaux 33(6):280-281.
A pair of hawks was electrocuted at a 17-kV power line in Switzerland.
59. BioSystems Analysis, Inc. 1990. Wind turbine effects on the activities, habitat, and death rate of birds. Prepared for Alameda, Contra Costa, and Solano Counties, California. 2 pp.
A two-year study to evaluate the extent and significance of the impact of wind turbines on bird life was started in 1989 in Altamont Pass, California. The study site included about 16 percent of the approximately 7,000 turbines in the Pass. One hundred fourteen dead birds were found between February 1989 and February 1990. Eighty-one were raptors, the majority of which were red-tailed hawks, American kestrels, and golden eagles. Sixty-three percent of all deaths were attributed to turbine collision, 12 percent to electrocution, 5 percent to wire collision, and 20 percent to unknown causes. Most deaths resulted from amputation injuries. "It was estimated that over 300 raptors were killed by windfarm-related injuries within the Altamont Pass area during the first year of study (1989-1990)."
60. Blake, C.H. 1958. Skull injuries at a TV tower. Chat (September):71.
Following the overcast night of 11 May 1958, ten freshly-killed passerines were picked up at the WUNC-TV tower in Hillsboro, North Carolina. Location of the carcasses suggested that "the birds were hitting the tower itself and not the guy wires and were deflected in falling by light wind from the southwest." Seven of the birds had skull injuries, including hemorrhages, suggesting a considerable proportion of glancing blows.
61. *Blokpoel, H. and D.R.M. Hatch. 1976. Snow geese, disturbed by aircraft, crash into power lines. Canadian Field Naturalist 90(2):195.
On 8 May 1974, several thousand snow and blue geese were feeding in a stubble field in Manitoba, Canada, when a low-flying aircraft caused them to take wing. In the "chaotic" rush into the air, 25-75 birds were killed or injured by striking power lines that bordered one side of the field. It is not known whether death resulted from collision or electrocution.
62. Bochkovskii, B.B., E.I. Udod, A.N. Sherentsis, and N.V. Yasinskaya. 1983. Protecting power lines against spark-over caused by large birds. Soviet Power Engineering 12(4):397-404.
Spark-overs (called 'flashovers' in the U.S.) were causing widespread power outages in 110- to 330-kV overhead lines in the Ukraine during summer. These electrical discharges passed from the utility pole crossbeam to a conductor via accumulated excrement from storks. This report includes recommendations for protecting the lines from storks and other large birds mainly by erection of special barriers to prevent birds from landing near insulators. Bird barrier design sketches are included.
63. *Boeker, E.L. and P.R. Nickerson. 1975. Raptor electrocutions. Wildlife Society Bulletin 3(2):79-81.
Use of power line poles by raptors depends on topography, prey abundance, and availability of natural perches. "Electrocutions are most critical in states with the largest eagle populations -- primarily the mountainous western states." During 1969-71, over 300 eagles died by electrocution in the western United States. Documented losses of raptors in 1972 and 1973 throughout the country totalled 281, 250 of which were golden eagles. Many victims were young birds and nearly all deaths occurred on small distribution lines where conductors were three to four feet apart. Particularly troublesome stretches of line were modified to alleviate the hazard.
64. Bohm, R.T. 1988. Three bald eagle nests on a Minnesota transmission line. Journal of Raptor Research 22(1):34.
One nest in 1986 and two in 1987 were found on 250-kV DC transmission lines. Each nest fledged two young successfully, was between 21 and 24 m from the ground, and was within one km of a lake or river. "An increasing bald eagle population, a lack of natural nest sites and a proliferation of transmission lines may interact to influence eagle use of powerlines in future years."
65. Bonneville Power Administration. 1987. Cape Blanco wind farm feasibility study: final report. U.S. Department of Energy. Portland, Oregon. DOE/BP-11191-14. 187 pp.
Bird collision with wind turbines and transmission lines is discussed in this assessment of wind energy development impacts. Collisions with turbines are likely, with weather, flight altitude, and number and height of operating turbines as contributing factors. Turbine collisions are most likely to occur during the first two hours of night at the initiation of migration (climbing altitude). Because of limited visibility and increased collisions at night, the impact on nocturnal migrant populations is a primary concern. The author concludes that bird avoidance behavior is likely to be high (about 95 percent) over the Cape Blanco Wind Farm.
66. Borell, A.E. 1939. Telephone wires fatal to sage grouse. Condor 41(1):85-86.
Three dead sage grouse were found beneath telephone lines paralleling a road north of Beaver, Utah. It appeared that the collisions occurred as the birds flew back and forth from alfalfa pastures and grain fields to the sagebrush-covered mesas on the other side of the road.
67. Boshoff, A. and C. Fabricius. 1986. Black eagles nesting on man-made structures. Bokmakierie 38(3):67-70.
The authors believed this to be the first report of black eagles, Aquila verreauxii, nesting on human-made structures. Several eagles were found electrocuted in 1984 and 1985 at a communications tower near Hopetown, South Africa. Subsequent attention to the matter of bird use of towers for nesting resulted in greater awareness "of the need to preserve raptor nests on ... structures and to keep disturbance to an absolute minimum during the critical stages of the breeding season."
68. *Boso, B. 1965. Bird casualties at a southeastern Kansas TV tower. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 68(1):131-136.
The 1,200-foot KOAM-TV tower in Kansas was checked regularly for dead birds during the fall of 1963 (75 birds, 35 species) and spring 1964 (50 birds, 14 species). A species list, weather on the days of collection, and the distribution of casualties about the tower are given.
69. *Boyd, H. 1961. Reported casualties to ringed ducks in the spring and summer. Wildfowl Trust 12th Annual Report:144-146.
Overhead wire collision was identified as the cause of death for 17 British-banded ducks (mostly mallard and teal species) recovered from March to August (no year given). In all, 87 "accidental" deaths were recorded. About 70 percent of the ducks killed were males.
70. *Boyd, H. and M. Ogilvie. 1964. Losses of mute swans in England in the winter of 1962-63. Wildfowl Trust 15th Annual Report:37-39.
Losses of mute swans due to collisions with overhead wires were abnormally low in January and February 1963, accounting for only 35 of the 264 reported deaths.
71. Brady, A. 1969. An electrocuted great horned owl. Cassinia 51:57.
An owl was found clutching a Norway rat and hanging from a power line in early November 1968 at Mechanicsville, Pennsylvania. The incident occurred presumably when the rat held by the owl touched the wire below the owl's perch and created a short circuit.
72. *Breckenridge, W.J. 1958. Fall migration: western Great Lakes region. Audubon Field Notes 12(1):32-33.
Between 31 August and 20 September 1957, three large kills were reported at a new 1,000-foot tower in Eau Claire, Wisconsin. The 2,972 casualties (42 species) found on 20 September included 23 species of warblers.
73. *Breckenridge, W.J. 1959. Spring migration: western Great Lakes region. Audubon Field Notes 13(4):371-373.
On 17 May, 284 birds were killed from colliding with a TV tower in Detroit, Michigan.
74. *Brewer, R. and J.A. Ellis. 1958. An analysis of migrating birds killed at a television tower in east-central Illinois, September 1955-May 1957. Auk 75(4):400-414.
This is a comprehensive account of the occurrence of avian mortality resulting from impacts with a 983-foot tower near Champaign, Illinois. Analysis of seven mortality incidents includes species lists (486 dead birds, 51 species), weather data, comparisons with kills elsewhere, sex, age, and fat content of birds collected, spatial distribution of the carcasses around the tower, and a discussion of the attraction of birds to the tower.
75. Bromby, R. 1981. Killer lines in Colorado present an electrocution hazard for raptors. Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife News 6(3).
This report cites a Utah study in which 529 eagle carcasses were found under 250 miles of power lines. Of the 69 carcasses fresh enough to determine the cause of death, 58 had been electrocuted, 10 had been shot, and one had struck a power line. The author notes that entanglement of birds by loosely wrapped wires has surfaced as a major problem in recent years. "Killer wires" are described as those with loose wrapping of wire, short crossarms, ground wires that run to the top of the pole, and metal cross braces.
76. Brown, L. 1976. British Birds of Prey: a study of Britain's 24 diurnal raptors. N N Collins, London.
This study indicates that wire collision is the most common single cause of accidental death of merlins in England.
77. Brown, W.M., R.C. Drewien, and E.G. Bizeau. 1987. Mortality of cranes and waterfowl from power line collisions in the San Luis Valley, Colorado. Pages 128-135 in: Proceedings of the 4th Crane Workshop, 1985. Platte River Whooping Crane Habitat Maintenance Trust, Grand Island, Nebraska.
The authors recommend that no new transmission lines be placed within two km of traditional roost or feeding sites. The static wire (the nonconducting topmost wire on a power line used to minimize power outages from lightning strikes) is normally smaller than the conductors and appears to be the wire most often struck by birds in flight. Static wire removal is recommended whenever possible, but modification and/or better marking are preferred methods.
78. *Browne, M.M. and W. Post. 1972. Black rails hit a television tower at Raleigh, North Carolina. Wilson Bulletin 84(4):491-492.
A black rail was found dead at the 1,175-foot WRAL tower in Raleigh, North Carolina, on 19 September 1969 and anotheron 27 September 1970.
79. **Byrd, V., J. Sincock, and T. Telfer. 1978. The status of Newell's manx shearwater, a threatened species. Page 80 in: Pacific Seabird Group 5th Annual Meeting, Asilomar, California, 13-16 December. Pacific Seabird Group, Stinson Beach, California.
On Kauai, Hawaii, shearwaters are susceptible to collisions with human-made objects such as power lines, buildings, and cars after being blinded by bright lights. This problem is worsening annually due to increased tourism and the resulting development and traffic.
80. Byrne, S. 1983. Bird movements and collision mortality at a large horizontal axis wind turbine. Cal-Neva Wildlife Transactions:76-83.
This study was conducted as a part of Pacific Gas and Electric Company's performance monitoring program for a Boeing MOD-2 wind turbine located at the edge of Suisun Marsh in Solano County, California. Bird mortality was monitored for one year beginning in September 1982. As of January 1, 1983, five dead birds had been found at the turbine site.
81. *Caldwell, L.D. and N.L. Cuthbert. 1963. Bird mortality at television towers near Cadillac, Michigan. Jack-Pine Warbler 41(2):80-89.
From 26 September to 16 October 1961, 812 birds (42 species) were collected at the 1,295-foot WWTV tower near Cadillac, Michigan. A comparison other revealed the fall mortality to be most like the kills reported from Nashville, Tennessee, and Eau Claire, Wisconsin. In spring 1962, 74 birds (27 species) were found at WWTV and 125 (36 species) were collected from a nearby 1,130-foot tower. The species composition was markedly different from the fall.
82. *Caldwell, L.D. and G.J. Wallace. 1966. Collections of migrating birds at Michigan television towers. Jack-Pine Warbler 44(3):117-123.
The spring and fall species composition of dead birds found from 1959 to 1964 at seven sites are analyzed. Towers within 30 miles of each other had virtually the same species composition, while greater diversity of species occurred between more distant towers. Spring and fall species compositions were markedly different, possibly due to different migration routes for various species. Warblers and thrushes were the most common casualties.
83. *Carter, J.H., III, and J.F. Parnell. 1976. TV tower kills in eastern North Carolina. Chat 40(1):1-9.
A large bird kill occurred in October 1970 (over 1,000 birds, 39 species) at the 1,994-foot WECT tower in North Carolina. In fall 1971 and 1972, regular checks (after the passage of cold fronts and after mostly cloudy nights) were made at WECT and at the 1,188-foot tower 30 miles away. Losses in 1971 (2,683 birds) were typically associated with the passage of cold fronts when low ceilings and north winds prevailed. In 1972, cold fronts passed quickly through the area and only 387 casualties were found. The authors note that many carcasses were no doubt overlooked in the vegetation at the tower sites and there was much evidence of predator/scavenger activity. A combined annotated species list is given.
84. *Case, L.D., H. Cruickshank, A.E. Ellis, and W.F. White. 1965. Weather causes heavy bird mortality. Florida Naturalist 38(1):29-30.
In early October 1964, 4,707 birds (37 species) were killed by striking brightly lit buildings, towers, cars, and other obstacles in Florida. "Clouds of birds" were reported circling buildings. Weather consisted of a low cloud ceiling, drizzle, and northerly winds. Warblers accounted for 98.7 percent of the casualties.
85. Cassel, J.F., D.W. Kiel, J.J. Knodel, and J.M. Wiehe. 1979. Relation of birds to certain power lines in central North Dakota. Zoology Department, North Dakota State University, Fargo. Prepared for the United Power Association, Environment and Lands Division, Elk River, Minnesota. 50 pp.
Searches for dead birds were conducted under two 230-kV transmission lines in North Dakota. One was an old line and the other was recently relocated to a wetland/slough area. In fall 1977, 15 birds were found at the old line; in spring 1978, 17 were found at the old line and 21 at the new line; in fall 1978, 17 were found at the old line and 30 at the new. Impacts of the two lines are compared. The authors conclude that the new line "provides no greater hazard" than the old. "Although birds flying in the vicinity of the transmission lines studied did seem to be aware of the lines, the lines seem to provide little threat to their welfare."
86. *Chamberlain, B.R. 1955. Fall migration: southern Atlantic coast region. Audubon Field Notes 9(1):17-18.
Heavy mortality at beacons, towers, ceilometers, and lighted windows was reported from several southeastern (U.S.) cities in October 1954. Red-eyed vireos and ovenbirds were the most common species.
87. *Chamberlain, B.R. 1957. Fall migration: southern Atlantic coast region. Audubon Field Notes 11(1): 15-18.
About 2,500 birds, mostly warblers, were killed at the Chapel Hill, North Carolina, TV tower on 28-29 September 1956.
88. *Chamberlain, B.R. 1958. Fall migration: southern Atlantic coast region. Audubon Field Notes 12(1):19-21.
During fall 1957, over 1,100 birds (80 species) were killed at an Aiken, South Carolina, tower. Smaller kills were reported from Raleigh and Charlotte, North Carolina, and Camp Cornelia and Atlanta, Georgia.
89. *Chamberlain, B.R. 1961. Fall migration: southern Atlantic coast region. Audubon Field Notes 15(1):23-26.
From 28 September to 2 October 1960, tower casualties in Charlotte, North Carolina, exceeded 340 birds. Smaller kills were reported during 8-17 October.
90. Clausen, B. and F. Gudmundsson. 1981. Causes of mortality among free-ranging gyrfalcons in Iceland. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 17(1):105-109.
Four dead gyrfalcons (of 38 studied at the Museum of Natural History in Reykjavik, Iceland) were found under telephone lines with fractured sternums or wings.
91. *Cochran, W.W. and R.R. Graber. 1958. Attraction of nocturnal migrants by lights on a television tower. Wilson Bulletin 70(4):378-380.
Counts of flight calls on two nights at a 984-foot tower near Champaign, Illinois, indicated that migrants were concentrated in the vicinity of the structure. Turning off the red warning lights on the tower eliminated the aggregation. This article was the first to provide any experimental evidence that nocturnal migrants actually congregate around the red warning lights on towers.
92. *Coffey, B.B., Jr. 1964. Two bird kills at WMC-TV, Memphis. Migrant 35(2):53.
On 7 and 8 May 1961, 19 dead warblers and vireos (11 species) were collected at the WMC-TV tower in Memphis, Tennessee. A second incident involving 99 birds (21 species), including 57 red-eyed vireos, occurred on 11 May 1964.
93. *Cohen, D.A., ed. 1896. California department. Osprey 1(1):15.
On 15 May, 14 red phalaropes and one ruddy duck were found dead near a telegraph line. Autopsies indicated that the birds had died from collisions with the overhead wire.
94. Colton, H.S. 1945. An unusual accident to a broad-tailed hummingbird. Plateau 18(15):15.
A broad-tailed hummingbird struck a radio aerial wire with great enough force to be stuck by its bill. It died because it could not escape from the tightly twisted copper wire strands. The incident, reported in Flagstaff, Arizona, in 1944, most likely occurred during a courtship flight.
95. Coon, N.C., L.N. Locke, E. Cromartie, and W.L. Reichel. 1970. Causes of bald eagle mortality, 1960-1965. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 6:72-76.
Of 55 bald eagles that died of injuries during this U.S. study, seven had impact injuries, one was electrocuted, and 45 had been shot.
96. Cornwell, G., and H.A. Hochbaum. 1971. Collisions with wires - a source of anatid mortality. Wilson Bulletin 83(3):305-306.
A female pintail was found impaled on a barbed wire fence on 15 August 1966 in the Portage la Prairie, Manitoba, Canada, Community Pasture. An adult blue-winged teal drake was found in a barbed wire fence in August 1966 in North Dakota. Other incidences included a drake pintail entangled by the neck from two telephone wires in July 1948 in Saskatchewan, Canada, and a female blue-winged teal impaled on a barbed wire fence. The authors note that barbed wire fences and overhead wires commonly kill ducks, but such incidents are seldom reported. It is recommended that barbed wire fences no longer needed be "removed from publicly-owned waterfowl production marshes; and, when overhead wires become a frequent local source of mortality, they should be placed under-ground or moved." Also, siting of fences and lines through marshes needs to be reevaluated.
97. *Cornwell, G.W. 1968. Needless duck deaths. Conservation Catalyst 2(4):15-18.
Data of 2,000,000 examples of non-hunting-related waterfowl mortality (including collision mortalities) in the U.S. and Canada were compiled. About half of 3,000 non-hunting deaths were due to striking wires. The author recommends that wires in areas of high waterfowl use be buried.
98. *Cottam, C. 1929. A shower of grebes. Condor 31(1):80-81.
Hundreds of eared grebes died by striking wires, houses, and trees after being forced to fly low in a snowstorm in Caliente, Nevada, in December 1928.
99. Coues, E. 1876. The destruction of birds by telegraph wire. American Naturalist 10(12):734-736.
In a three-mile stretch between Cheyenne, Wyoming, and Denver, Colorado, Coues counted over 100 dead birds, mostly horned larks, lying beneath the telegraph line. Three birds were actually seen striking the wires. The larks exhibited some hesitation and confusion in flight when flocks crossed the wires. The author states, "Usually, a remedy has been or may be provided for any unnecessary or undesirable destruction of birds; but there seems to be none in this instance. Since we cannot conveniently abolish the telegraph, we must be content with fewer birds."
100. Council of Europe. 1981. Birds in need of special protection in Europe. Nature and Environment Series No. 24. Strasbourg, France. 154 pp.
Widespread power line collision is mentioned as a reason for the decline of eagle owls (Bubo bubo) in Europe. White storks (Ciconia ciconia) are also prone to overhead wire collision. Both species are given "vulnerable" status.
101. Craig, T.H. 1978. A car survey of raptors in southeastern Idaho 1974-1976. Raptor Research 12(1/2):40-45.
A survey of raptors was conducted by car over a 187 km route in southeastern Idaho during the non-nesting seasons from November 1974 to May 1976. Rough-legged hawks were the most numerous observed, followed by American kestrels and golden eagles. Perched raptors were commonly seen on power poles: 75.1 percent of rough-legged hawks, 94 percent of prairie falcons, 80.4 percent of American kestrels, and 73.7 percent of golden eagles. American kestrels preferred pole tops or wires; most golden eagles preferred the tops and crossarms.
102. *Crawford, R.L. 1971. Predation on birds killed at TV tower. Oriole 36(4):33-35.
To test the effects of scavengers at the WCTV tower near Tallahassee, Florida, 157 marked dead birds were placed out over a period of five nights. The nightly loss of test birds to scavengers was between 64 percent and 100 percent. The author concludes that serious attention must be paid to the predator/scavenger problem at towers if meaningful data are to be obtained.
103. *Crawford, R.L. 1974. Bird casualties at a Leon County, Florida TV tower: October 1966-September 1973. Tall Timbers Research Station Bulletin No. 18. Tallahassee, Florida. 27 pp.
During the seven years covered in this report, over 5,500 casualties and seven new species were collected at the WCTV tower in Florida, bringing the total losses to about 35,000 (177 species) in 18 years of continuous monitoring. Monthly species lists are given for the last seven years, and the total kill is presented by spring and fall months for each year 1955-1973. Much of this report is devoted to the problem of scavengers removing tower casualties. An extensive literature review is included in the introduction.
104. *Crawford, R.L. 1976. Some old records of TV tower kills from southwest Georgia. Oriole 41(4): 45-51.
This article presents previously unreported data, originally collected by H.L. Stoddard, Sr., and R.A. Norris, on bird losses at the WALB and WRBL-WTVM towers in southwestern Georgia. On 28 visits to the WALB tower from 1959 to 1963, 613 birds (no total species count) were collected. Many of the carcasses were disturbed by scavengers, and tall grass around the station grounds made it impossible to find birds over much of the area. Frontal activity and other weather conditions associated with kills on 12-13 September 1959, 7-8 September 1962, and 17-18 October 1962 are described. The species composition between kills at WALB and WCTV in Tallahassee, Florida (about 80 km SW), were significantly similar on the first two nights, but not on the third. Species lists for the three dates at both towers are given. Two kills were recorded at the WRBL-WTVM tower: 18 birds on 23 April and 60 on 18 September 1962.
105. Crawford, R.L. 1978. Autumn bird casualties at a northwest Florida TV tower: 1973-1975. Wilson Bulletin 90(3):335-345.
In fall 1973, 261 individuals of 57 species were collected at the 308-meter WCTV tower at Tall Timbers Research Station, Leon County, Florida. The following fall, 1,832 dead birds (87 species) were gathered. In 1975, 1,771 of 90 species were collected, totaling 3,864 individuals of 109 species for the three autumns. Age and sex classes were noted. In 1974 and 1975, a rigorous program of predator control was instituted.
106. *Cunningham, R.L. 1964a. Fall migration: Florida region. Audubon Field Notes 18(1):24-28.
In September 1963, in Leon County, Florida, the largest kill ever (no data given) at the WFSU tower was reported. At the WCTV tower, 735 birds, including 80 bobolinks, were killed.
107. *Cunningham, R.L. 1964b. Spring migration: Florida region. Audubon Field Notes 18(4):442-446.
In Leon County, Florida, 207 birds, including 150 thrushes, were found dead at the WCTV tower. The WFSU tower had small mortality numbers during the spring.
108. *Cunningham, R.L. 1965. Fall migration: Florida region. Audubon Field Notes 19(1):28-33.
Following the drizzly, hazy night of 6 October 1964, 4,707 birds (37 species) were found dead near the Indian River in Florida, the result of low-flying birds striking buildings, headlights and windshields; 98 percent were warblers (1,354 common yellowthroats and 322 blackpolls). Also, "moderate" bird kills were reported at towers in Daytona Beach and St. Augustine. Over 2,000 birds were killed during 6-8 October at two TV towers in Jacksonville; 95 percent of these fatalities were warblers.
109. Dawson, B. 1974. Letting them go: great horned owls go to school. Museum Talk 48(2):45-48.
The Bird of Prey Survival Project at San Francisco Zoological Gardens has a ward with two golden eagles, each with a wing missing due to power line collision.
110. Dean, W.R.J. 1975. Martial eagles nesting on high tension pylons. Ostrich 46(1):116-117.
In the Kimberley area of the Cape Province, South Africa, martial eagles (Polemaetus bellicosus) have been recorded as nesting on high tension pylons. The nests were all in woodlands, although tree sites were available. In the Ottoshoop area of the western Transvaal, a tawny eagle (Aquila rapax) was recorded nesting on a high tension pylon.
111. Dedon, M., S. Byrne, J. Aycrigg, and P. Hartman. 1989. Bird mortality in relation to the Mare Island 115-kV transmission line: progress report 1988/1989. Prepared by Technical and Ecological Services. Prepared for Department of the Navy, Western Division, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Office of Environmental Management, San Bruno, California. Report 443-89.3. 150 pp.
The area surrounding the 115-kV transmission line serving the Mare Island Naval Shipyard in California was searched for associated bird mortalities from August 1988 through June 1989. Scavenging and predation biases are mentioned. During the study, 242 birds were collected in the salt evaporation pond transect and 68 birds and one bat were collected in the hay field transect, totaling 43 species. Correcting for scavenging and habitat biases showed that total estimated bird mortality associated with the power line was 310 for the hay field transect and 724 for the salt pond transect. The most common species collected were ruddy duck, western sandpiper, black-bellied plover, western meadowlark, and red-winged blackbird. A control transect produced 80 specimens of 15 species. The authors conclude that the "numerous dead birds found in this transect support the conclusion that collision mortality represents a small amount of the total mortality of the local bird populations." Overall mortality was high at times of low visibility and low during periods of "unsettling weather." Recommendations include improving sampling techniques and using more objective search bias tests, more frequent scavenger tests, and better vegetation control. A bird flight pattern study is recommended to provide perspective for mortality information and to learn which conductors contribute most to collisions. Suggestions to reduce bird mortalities due to power line collisions include the use of aerial markers, tree planting adjacent to the transmission line, and undergrounding the power line.
112. Dedon, M., P. Hartman, S. Byrne, and S.A. Laymon. 1990. Bird mortality in relation to the Mare Island 115-kV transmission line: progress report 1989/1990. Prepared by Technical and Ecological Services. Prepared for Department of the Navy, Western Division, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Office of Environmental Management, San Bruno, California. Report 443-90.4. 100 pp.
In the second year of monitoring at this California site, 259 birds (53 species) were collected. Accounting for predation and scavenging biases, 334 birds were estimated to be killed by the transmission line in the hay field transect and 923 in the salt pond transect. Species found most were black-bellied plover, ruddy duck, western sandpiper, dunlin, savannah sparrow, and western meadowlark, accounting for 54 percent of all identified specimens. Two black rails (listed as threatened in California) were found. During the day, passerines generally flew below the height of the lower distribution lines and non-passerines flew mostly above the 115-kV transmission line. The authors recommend continuing surveys and implementing a study to assess the effectiveness of power line markers for reducing bird collisions. This 115-kV line is adjacent to wetlands frequented by birds.
113. Dennis, R. 1990. Birds and conservation problems of the high tops. North of Scotland Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB). Munlochy, Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. 4 pp.
Mountain birds of the "high tops" of Scotland include ptarmigan, dotterel, and snow bunting. Ski developments threaten the best habitats for the rarest birds. "The threats to birds can be direct, such as damage to the environment and its vegetation, changes in snowbed vegetation due to compaction, disturbance by large numbers of people and deaths due to collisions with overhead wires." The author feels that proposed projects for skiing expansion in the Cairngorm National Nature Reserve be stopped to protect the High Tops from further damage.
114. *Devitt, O.1967. The birds of Simcoe County, Ontario. Brereton Field Naturalists' Club, Barrie, Ontario, Canada. 190 pp.
Kills at the CKVR-TV tower at Barrie, Ontario, Canada, during 1960-67 are discussed. The numbers of deaths seemed to vary directly with the prevalence of fog and low ceiling during migration. In the seven years covered, 2,632 dead birds (63 species) were collected. The majority killed were thrushes, warblers, flycatchers and sparrows; a complete list is given.
115. Devlin, J.M. 1954. Effects of weather on nocturnal migration as seen from one observation point at Philadelphia. Wilson Bulletin 66(2):93-101.
Three hundred avian migrants were killed on the night of 21-22 September 1953 when they crashed against the Empire State Building in New York City. The author notes that this event illustrates what happens if migrants on a following wind meet a warm front with strong southerly winds and are forced to fly very low under the frontal slope.
116. *Dickinson, L.E. 1957. Utilities and birds. Audubon Magazine 59(2):54-55, 86-87.
The author reviews the problem of bird strikes and electrocutions at power lines in the U.S. and cites examples of solutions to particular situations.
117. *Dilger, W.C. 1954. Electrocution of parakeets at Agra, India. Condor 56(2):102-103.
Rose-ringed parakeets were frequently electrocuted on power lines at an Army base at Agra, India, in the 1940s.
118. *d'Ombrain, A.F. 1945. Migratory birds and overhead wires. Emu 45(2):173-174.
Migrating shorebirds "become mystified by the bright city lights" which cause them to fly lower than usual, resulting in collisions with overhead wires. Two instances of mortality in Australia are recounted.
119. Drager, T. and J. Linthicum, eds. 1985. Peregrine falcon wild nest management, hack sites, and cross-foster operations. Santa Cruz Predatory Bird Research Group. University of California, Santa Cruz.
A female peregrine falcon was reported to have collided with a power line. No apparent injury resulted.
120. *Drewien, R.1973. Ecology of Rocky Mountain greater sandhill cranes. Dissertation. University of Idaho, Moscow. 82 pp.
Collisions with power lines accounted for 37 percent of the observed sandhill crane mortality in the population that was studied in the western U.S.
121. *Dunbar, R.J. 1954. Bird mortality - Oak Ridge. Migrant 25(4):63-64.
On the morning of 7 October, 1954, about 1,000 birds (22 species) were found dead on a parking lot at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Losses were attributed to collisions with overhead power lines, light towers, cars, and pavement. Most carcasses were found beneath the parking lot lights.
122. Dunstan, T.C. 1968. Breeding success of osprey in Minnesota from 1963 to 1968. Loon (Dec.):109-112.
The author discusses contributing factors of osprey mortality in Minnesota. Osprey sometimes nest on utility poles at the crossbars. A nestling and an adult were found electrocuted at two different nest sites.
123. Dunstan, T.C., J.H. Harper, and K.B. Phipps. 1978. Final report: habitat use and hunting strategies of prairie falcons, red-tailed hawks, and golden eagles. Prepared for U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Denver, Colorado. Contract 52500-CT5-1013. 177 pp.
Still-hunting from utility and power line poles and crossbars, trees, fence posts, shrubs, rocks, and the ground was the most extensively used prey-search technique for prairie falcons, red-tailed hawks, and golden eagles during the study.
124. *Eaton, S.W. 1967. Recent tower kills in upstate New York. Kingbird 17(3):142-147.
Bird mortality from collisions with towers on the Allegheny Plateau in New York is discussed, including a list of 57 species found dead during 1956. The author estimates that 10,000 songbirds are killed annually from tower collision in the area.
125. Edeburn, R.M. 1973. Great horned owl impaled on barbed wire. Wilson Bulletin 85(4):478.
A great horned owl was found dead, impaled at the base of its left wing on a barbed wire fence, in summer 1972 in Mercer, Pennsylvania.
126. *Edscorn, J.B. 1974. The fall migration: Florida region. American Birds 28(1):40-44.
The unusually low kill at the WCTV tower near Tallahassee, Florida, in fall 1973 was attributed to very clear weather.
127. *Edscorn, J.B. 1975. The fall migration: Florida region. American Birds 29(1):44-48.
Included among the fall 1974 casualties at the WCTV tower in Florida were 971 birds on the night of 17 October.
128. *Elder, W.H. and J. Hansen. 1967. Bird mortality at KOMU-TV tower, Columbia, Missouri, fall 1965 and 1966. Bluebird 34(1):3-7.
A list of 851 dead birds (36 species) found in fall 1965 and 1966 at KOMU-TV, Columbia, Missouri, is given, with age and sex data on seven species from 1966. Some comparisons with data from other towers are included.
129. Electric Power Research Institute. 1982. Prevention of golden eagle electrocution. EPRI EA-2680, Project 1002 Final Report. Palo Alto, California. 90 pp.
Eagle electrocutions were documented in six western United States by examining carcasses found below power lines; of the 416 birds found, 82.5 percent were golden eagles. This report analyzes species and age of electrocuted birds, temporal occurrences, abundance of raptors, raptor prey, vegetation, topography, soil, weather, and other related factors. "Measures found to lower incidences of eagle electrocution include routing lines around preferred prey habitat, locating power lines in topographically low areas, and insulating conductors on corner and transformer poles."
130. Elkins, N. 1988. Weather and bird behavior. Second edition. T. & A.D. Poyser, Calton, Staffordshire, England. 239 pp.
Bird mortality caused by inclement weather and collision with power lines and other structures is briefly discussed. "This happens most frequently to nocturnal migrants in dense fog or cloud accompanied by precipitation. The refraction and reflection of light by water droplets increase the sphere of illumination and confuse the migrants.... The effects of adverse weather are more pronounced for birds that are deformed, injured, diseased, or heavily parasitized, and these individuals are invariably the first to die in a stress situation. Resistance of healthy birds may be lowered by sudden and large temperature changes. There is evidence of a sex difference in the ability to resists these changes; females appear to be hardier, particularly in polygamous species."
131. Ellis, D.H., J.G. Goodwin, Jr., and J.R. Hunt. 1978. Wildlife and electric power transmission. In: J.L. Fletcher and R.G. Busnel, eds. Effects of noise on wildlife. Academic Press, Inc., New York. 305 pp.
Electrocution is noted as a significant cause of eagle mortality in the western U.S. and of the cape vulture (Gyps coprothers) in southern Africa. Ravens, eagles, hawks, and occasionally other birds use local power line towers for nest sites. Wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) heavily utilize towers and even conductors as roost sites in west Texas. The authors recommend that key locations where birds are especially vulnerable (e.g., mountain passes along important migration corridors) should be avoided in siting power lines. Problem areas need to be identified and corrected.
132. Ellis, D.H., D.G. Smith, and J.R. Murphy. 1969. Studies on raptor mortality in western Utah. Great Basin Naturalist 29(3):165-167.
The majority of raptor mortalities are from shootings. A significant number can also be attributed to power line electrocution.
133. Eltringham, S.K. 1963. The British population of the mute swan in 1961. Bird Study 10(1):10-28.
Power disruption and mortality of mute swans in Britain are discussed. The author recommends re-siting the cables away from regular swan routes and increasing cable visibility in order to reduce collisions and power black-outs.
134. Emerson, W.O. 1904. Destruction of birds by wires. Condor 6(1):37.
The author discusses power line collision mortality of shorebirds and a black rail in the San Francisco Bay area, particularly in salt marshes and evaporating ponds, noting "the disastrous effect upon bird life of numerous telephone, telegraph, and electric power wires strung along highways" and across lines of migration or favorite paths to feeding grounds. The death of a great horned owl on a barbed wire fence is noted.
135. Enderson, J.H. and M.N. Kirven. 1979. Peregrine falcon foraging study in the geysers: Calistoga known geotheral resource area, Sonoma County, California. Prepared for the U.S. Bureau of Land Management. Prepared by Department of Biology, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colorado. 17 pp.
Power transmission lines are a hazard to peregrine falcons because their attack dives may exceed 150 mph. "Collisions with wires are well-known: at least six occurred in California in recent years ... and in 1978 in Colorado a young Peregrine struck a power line 2 km from its eyrie and suffered a broken wing."
136. Estep, J.A. 1989. Avian mortality at large wind energy facilities in California: identifica- tion of a problem. California Energy Commission, Sacramento. P700-89-001. 30 pp.
Avian mortality data resulting from collision or electrocution with wind energy-related structures were solicited and compiled from a variety of sources in 1988. The incidents occurred between November 1984 and April 1988 at Altamont Pass and Tehachapi Pass, California. One hundred eight raptors of seven species were reported. Causes of mortality, injuries, age class, season, and other results are discussed.
137. Faanes, C.A. 1987. Bird behavior and mortality in relation to power lines in prairie habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Fish and Wildlife Technology Report 7. 24 pp.
In this study of two spring and two fall migration periods between July 1980 and May 1982, 633 birds were found dead beneath 9.6 km of power lines. The total kill was estimated at 1,332 birds, with higher mortality rates during the fall migration. Overhead ground wires were responsible for most of the deaths. Diving ducks appeared to experience fewer problems near power lines than dabbling ducks. While none of the observed mortality was considered biologically significant at the sites studied, the cumulative effect of avian collision mortality may be important, particularly to populations of rare or endangered birds. Power lines 400 m or more from the edge of the water generally had lower observed mortality than sites with closer lines. Avian mortality in riparian habitat may increase when power lines are at or below the forest canopy, probably due to decreased visibility.
138. *Farnham, C.B., Jr. 1971. Snipe impaled on cable. Kingbird 21(1):10-11.
In New York, a common snipe died when its lower mandible pierced the insulation of a telephone wire and could not get free.
139. *Feehan, J. 1963. Destruction of birdlife in Minnesota - Sept. 1963. Birds killed at the Ostrander television tower. Flicker 35(4):111-112.
A list of 1,250 birds (28 species) killed in Minnesota on a cloudy night in September 1963 is presented.
140. Ferrer, M. and M. De La Riva. 1987. Impact of power lines on the population of birds of prey in the Donana National Park and its environment. Mediterranean Birds of Prey III. National Institute of Game Biology 12. (English summary.)
This study took place in the marshes of the Guadalquivir River in southern Spain from 1982 to 1983. Mortality variations throughout the year were reported along 100 km of power lines in this area, which has great importance as one of the last refuges of the Spanish imperial eagle. More than 100 birds of prey carcasses (13 species) were collected including Aquila adalberti, Gyps fulvus, and Circaetus gallicus. Because 70 percent or so of the bodies were lost before recovery, the actual number of raptor mortalities could reach 400 per year. Factors influencing the death rate include precipitation, wind, relative humidity, landscape characteristics, pattern of utility towers, and position of insulators. Electrocution was shown to be one of the main causes of imperial eagle mortality.
141. Ferrer, M., M. De La Riva, and J. Castroviejo. 1991. Electrocution of raptors onpower lines in southwestern Spain. Journal of Field Ornithology 62(2):181-190. (English summary.)
A study conducted at Donana National Park in Spain revealed that within a 100 km sector of power lines, 233 dead raptors (13 species) were found. It is estimated that about 400 raptors per year die along this section of lines. Deaths from wire collision accounted for 2.8 percent of the total mortality during the study. Electrocution is the primary known cause of death for the endangered Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti). Mortality rates differed with changes in habitat quality. Those areas with more human-altered habitat exhibited lower mortality rates from electrocution, while areas with more natural habitat exhibited higher rates. The authors recommend the use of suspended insulators so that the wing tips of a perched bird cannot contact both phases at once. "[O]n metal pylons the position of insulators is an extremely critical factor affecting raptor mortality rates."
142. *Fisher, H.I. 1966. Midway's deadly antennas. Audubon Magazine 68(4):220-223.
The effects of numerous antennas and guy cables on Midway Island's colony of Laysan albatrosses are discussed. At least 2,901 were killed in a 7-month period. Damage to other species is also mentioned.
143. *Fisher, H.I. 1970. The death of Midway's antennas. Audubon Magazine 72(1):62-63.
Antennas on Midway Island were responsible for the deaths of more than 3,000 Laysan albatrosses in 1964 and 1965. Avian collision deaths stopped after the antennas were removed.
144. *Fitzner, R.E. 1975. Owl mortality on fences and utility lines. Raptor Research 9(3/4):55-57.
In Washington and Idaho during the winter of 1973-74, the author found one great horned owl and one short-eared owl impaled on barbed wire fences and two short-eared owls hanging from overhead utility wires.
145. Fitzner, R.E., W.H. Rickard, L.L. Cadwell, and L.E. Rogers. 1981. Raptors of the Hanford site and nearby areas of southcentral Washington. Prepared by Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington. Prepared for the Department of Energy and Rockwell Hanford Operations. Contract DE-AC06-76RLO 1830. 61 pp.
At Hanford, Washington, red-tailed hawks nested principally in utility towers 30 to 100 feet high. Fifty-two percent of nesting pairs observed in 1978 nested on transmission towers.
146. **Flegg, J.J.M. and C.J. Cox. 1975. Mortality in the black-headed gull. British Birds 68(11):437-449.
During four periods between 1908 and 1972, the percentage of ringed gulls recovered "dead under wires" varied from 2.1 (1908-1924) to 3.9 (1953-1968) (percentage of total recovery). Of birds banded as nestlings in Britain and Ireland during 1967-1974, 5.7 percent of the juveniles (6 months old and less) and 4.5 percent of the adults recovered were killed striking wires.
147. **Flegg, J.J.M. and R.A. Morgan. 1976. Mortality in British gulls. Ringing and Migration 1(2):65-74.
The recoveries of six species of gull banded as nestlings in Britain and Ireland during 1967-1973 are analyzed. The category "found dead" accounted for about 70 percent of the total recoveries. Collision with overhead wires was responsible for appreciable losses among all species except the common gull which suffered considerable mortality due to vehicle collision.
148. Fredrickson, L.H. 1983. Bird response to transmission lines at a Mississippi river crossing. Transactions of the Missouri Academy of Science 17:129-140.
Bird response to a 138-kV power transmission facility was monitored near Wittenberg, Missouri, from October to May, 1973 to 1975. Of 132,911 birds flying past the facility, no dead or injured birds were collected nor were any collisions recorded. Only six birds flew close enough to the wires to have their movement classed as near collision; 65 percent of the birds flew at a distance greater than 15 m from the wires. Blackbirds were the most common bird during the study. "The residency status of birds, visibility, disturbance, and habitat are suggested as important factors that may be related to injury or collision."
149. *Ganier, A.F. 1962. Bird casualties at a Nashville TV tower. Migrant 33(4):58-60.
Three incidents at the 1,369-foot WSM-TV tower in Nashville, Tennessee, in fall 1962 resulted in losses of 301 birds (39 species) and 2 red bats. Weather data are included.
150. Garzon, J. 1977. Birds of prey in Spain: the present situation. Pages 159-170 in: R.D. Chancellor, ed. Proceedings of World Conference on Birds of Prey, International Council for Bird Preservation, Vienna, Austria, 1-3 October 1975.
The greatest threat to birds of prey in Spain is from overhead cables.
151. Gauthreaux, S.A., Jr. 1985. Radar, electro-optical, and visual methods of studying bird flight near transmission lines. Prepared by Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina. Prepared for Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California. EPRI EA-4120. 76 pp.
Current and future energy projections to fulfill growing demand indicate that there will be an increase in the miles of power lines erected in the United States. There is concern about the extent of the environmental impact of new lines on avian wildlife, particularly in the area of bird flight behavior and collision mortality. "A lack of data and the abundance of speculation on the impact of transmission lines has resulted in costly delays, route changes, and refusal of permits for line construction projects." The purpose of this study is to provide information on the accuracy and usefulness of equipment (radar and electro-optical instruments) in assessing bird flight behavior and collision rates near transmission lines. Visual methods are also considered as possible study strategies.
152. *George, W. 1963. Columbia tower fatalities. Bluebird 30(4):5.
On the nights of 20 and 21 September 1963, 941 birds (46 species) were killed at the KOMU-TV tower, Columbia, Missouri. A species list is given.
153. *Gerstenberg, R.H. 1972. A study of shorebirds (Charadrii) in Humboldt Bay, California, 1968 to 1969. Thesis. California State University, Humboldt. 207 pp.
More than 150 northern phalaropes were killed on 6 May 1969 by striking electric wires along the coast near Trinidad, California. Similar incidents, involving fewer birds, occurred on 6 May 1967 and 7 May 1971.
154. Gillard, R. 1977. Unnecessary electrocution of owls. Blue Jay 35(4):259.
The author reports two great horned owl electrocution mortalities found at the same utility pole in Canada, one in August 1972 and the other in July 1975. Anotherstudy is referenced where 13 electrocuted great horned owls were reported. The author recommends that the Saskatchewan Power Corporation follow the U.S. example of pole modifications to reduce the numbers of avian deaths and power outages.
155. Gilmer, D.S. and J.M. Wiehe. 1977. Nesting by ferruginous hawks and other raptors on high voltage powerline towers. Prairie Naturalist (March):1-10.
Aerial searches for raptor nests were conducted in spring 1976 along U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 230-kV towers in North Dakota. Ferruginous hawks (21 total, twelve successful nests), red-tailed hawks (five total, three successful nests), and great horned owls (three total, two successful nests) were observed. Most ferruginous hawk nests were constructed in the center of the tower where horizontal steel support members crossed at right angles; most red-tailed hawk nests were constructed near the tops of towers. Several nests were blown out of structures by the wind.
156. Glue, D.E. 1971. Ringing recovery circumstances of small birds of prey. Bird Study 18(3):137-146.
This study presents findings on analysis "of recovery details of those five British birds of prey ringed in greatest numbers" - kestrel, tawny owl, little owl, barn owl, and sparrowhawk. Kestrels were more prone to collisions with overhead wires, cables, and buildings than were barn, tawny, and little owls. There was a 3.3 percent mortality rate of band recoveries of the five species from telephone wire or cable collision. A higher percentage of collisions occurred in diurnal species such as kestrels due to hunting methods.
157. *Gollop, M.A. 1965. Bird migration collision casualties at Saskatoon. Blue Jay 23(1):15-17.
During 1961-64, at Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, 543 dead birds and one red bat were collected at several towers, and 15 dead birds were collected beneath power lines. Species lists are provided.
158. Goodland, R. 1973. Ecological perspectives of power transmission. Pages 1-35 in: R. Goodland, ed. Proceedings of Biotic Management along Power Transmission Rights- of-Way colloquium, American Institute of Biological Science annual meeting, Amherst, Massachusetts, 21 June 1973. Prepared by The Cary Arboretum of the New York Botanical Gardens, Millbrook, New York.
Goodland discusses the magnitude of the problem of ecological effects of power transmission, advance regional planning, and tower sitings. He emphasizes that "wetland crossings, streams, and waterings merit special care because they are fragile ecosystems in which apparently minor damage may cause major effects."
159. Goodland Daily News. Nov. 5, 1965. Rare whooping crane is found dead near Atwood. Goodland Daily News, Kansas 33(234):1.
A 15-pound whooping crane with a seven-foot wingspan was found dead in a wheat field near Atwood, Kansas. "The only mark on the bird ... was an abrasion on one leg. Death probably resulted from a broken neck when it struck the power line."
160. *Goodpasture, K.A. 1974a. Fall 1972 television tower casualties in Nashville. Migrant 45(2):29-31.
At the WSM and WSIX towers in Nashville, Tennessee, 556 dead birds (58 species) were collected in fall 1972, the lowest fall total since 1967. The kills were associated with low ceilings and the passage of cold fronts. On 18 October, 141 birds were found dead at the WSM tower, but none were recorded at WSIX on that date. Complete species lists are given.
161. *Goodpasture, K.A. 1974b. Fall 1973 television tower casualties in Nashville. Migrant 45(3):57-59.
Almost daily checks of the WSM and WSIX towers in Nashville, Tennessee, in September and October 1973 resulted in 165 dead birds found (42 species), the lowest seasonal total since regular monitoring began. Weather was generally mild throughout the fall. Following a clear night, 49 dead birds were collected on 6 October. The WSM tower had recently been painted bright orange and the guy wires were painted with aluminum paint, but it is doubtful if this had any effect on the kill. Lists of the losses are given.
162. *Goodpasture, K.A. 1975. Nashville tower casualties, 1974. Migrant 46(3):49-51.
A new low (123 birds, 34 species) in fall casualties was recorded at the WSM and WNGE (formerly WSIX) towers in Nashville, Tennessee. As in fall 1973, the weather was "without notable nocturnal violence or stormy force." No clear explanation of the low kills in 1973 and 1974 was obvious, but increased scavenger activity may have been partly responsible. A kill of about 700 birds on 15 September was reported at a tower in Decatur, Alabama. Lists of the Nashville kills are given.
163. *Goodpasture, K.A. 1976. Nashville television tower casualties, 1975. Migrant 47(1):8-10.
Casualties numbered 513 (53 species) at the WSM and WNGE towers in Nashville, Tennessee, in fall 1975. The weather was generally mild, with fronts of low intensity. Warblers (22 species) accounted for two-thirds of the losses. Cats were noticeable scavengers. A complete kill list is given.
164. Goodpasture, K.A. 1978. Television tower casualties, 1976. Migrant 49(3):53-54.
In September and October 1976, 406 dead birds (43 species) were collected at two towers in Nashville, Tennessee. Ovenbirds had the highest count (63), followed by magnolia and bay-breasted warblers.
165. *Goodwin, C.E. 1975. The winter season: Ontario region. American Birds 29(1):48-57.
During fall 1974, kills at the Lennox power plant chimney and the Barrie and London TV towers in Ontario, Canada, totalled 7,550 birds. Red-eyed vireos (1129), ovenbirds (1038), and magnolia warblers (920) were the species most commonly killed.
166. *Goodwin, C.E. and R.C. Rosche. 1971. The fall migration: Ontario. American Birds 25(1):49-54.
On the night of 13 September 1970, "extensive casualties" (mostly ovenbirds and other warblers) were recorded at London, Ontario, TV towers, and 136 birds were killed at the 1,000-foot Toronto-Dominion Centre.
167. Goodwin, J.G., Jr. 1975. Big game movement near a 500-kV transmission line in northern Idaho. Prepared for Bonneville Power Administration, Engineering and Construction Division, Portland, Oregon. 56 pp.
The potential for bird electrocution at a transmission line in Idaho is discussed. While electrocution of large raptors is a problem on low voltage lines (below 115 kV) due to the close spacing of conductors, wider conductor spacing on high voltage lines (such as this 500-kV transmission line in northern Idaho) "corrects this problem." Towers supporting these lines may be beneficial as nesting sites. Although birds observed flying near the conductors on a 500-kV line encountered no problems, the author observed a near collision between a Canada goose and the ground wire running above the conductors.
168. Gosselin, M. 1978. The winter season: Quebec region. American Birds 32(3):324-326.
On December 3, 1977, a lesser black-backed gull was found dead below power lines in Quebec, Canada.
169. Goulty, C.A. 1988. Birds and power lines: a bibliography. Council of Planning Librarians Bibliography No. 219. Chicago, Illinois. 11 pp.
This bibliography contains 143 international listings on birds and utility lines and was prepared specifically "as a reference work for transmission route planning engineers[,] operation and maintenance engineers of electric utilities, ornithologists, and all those concerned and interested in the routing of power lines."
170. Graber, R.R. 1968. Nocturnal migration in Illinois: different points of view. Wilson Bulletin 80(1):36-71.
This is an extensive analysis of nocturnal migration using radar, aural recordings, field observations, and tower kills. The kills occurred near Champaign, Illinois, in late September from 1957 to 1962 and totalled 1,500 birds (41 species). Complete lists of kills are given, and the nature of bird mortality at towers is discussed.
171. *Graham, R. 1916. Carolina rail accidentally killed. Oologist 33(11):187.
A sora was found dead in Ft. Worth, Texas, evidently killed by striking a telephone wire.
172. *Green, J.C. 1963. Destruction of birdlife in Minnesota - Sept. 1963. Notes on kills at Duluth on September 18/19. Flicker 35(4):112-113.
At the Duluth, Minnesota, ceilometer, 92 birds (17 species) were killed. The light was turned off to prevent further losses. Casualties totalled 35 (12 species) at the WDSM tower.
173. *Green, J.C. 1964. Fall migration: western Great Lakes region. Audubon Field Notes 18(1):33-34, 39-42.
During 18-20 September 1963, extraordinary numbers of migrating birds passed through the Minnesota-Wisconsin area. At an Eau Claire, Wisconsin, tower, over 10,000 birds (45 species) were collected; total mortality was estimated at over 30,000. At Ostrander, Minnesota, an estimated 1,500 birds died based on 250 actually collected. In Lewisville, Minnesota, 924 birds (47 species) were collected, and about 100 more were killed at a ceilometer in Duluth. A slow-moving cold front with overcast skies was associated with these incidents.
174. *Gregory, H. 1975. Unusual fall tower kill. Bluebird 42(4):9-10.
On the night of 14 October 1975, over 98 birds (20 species) were killed at four towers in Missouri and Kansas. The KCMO tower in Kansas City, Missouri, accounted for 67 casualties including 32 mourning doves. The incidents were unusual because KCMO is free-standing (i.e., no guy wires) and the cloud ceiling was rather high (5,000-10,000 feet). A listing of casualties by tower is given.
175. Gretz, D.I. 1981. Power line entanglement hazard to raptors. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Denver, Colorado. 9 pp.
In Colorado, a ferruginous hawk and a golden eagle were evidently killed by electrocution after their talons became entangled in some loosely wrapped wires holding a power line to an insulator. The author felt that power line entanglement could be a significant mortality factor for raptors. Entanglement problems could be corrected by tightly rewrapping the wire holding the power line to the insulator and installing a cover (split plastic tube) over the wrapping on each side of the insulator.
176. *Griepentrog, E.A. 1929. Wire mortalities. Oologist 46(2):24.
In Oregon during 1926-28, the author noted several instances of bird collisions with telephone wires and barbed-wire fences. Species that struck telephone wires included common snipe, western gull, and mourning dove, while a gray partridge and an American robin struck barbed-wire fences.
177. Grosse, H. and W. Sykora. 1980. Eine 220-kV-Hochspannungstrasse im Uberspannungsgebiet der Talsperre Windischleuba war Vogelfalle. Falke 27(6):247-248. (In German; not translated.)
178. Haas, D. 1980. Endangerment of our large birds by electrocution: a documentation. Okol. Vogel (Ecology of Birds) 2:7-57.
Between 1934 and 1980, the population of white storks in Germany decreased by 78.5 percent. More storks died from overhead lines than from any other cause. The number of mortalities increased over the years: 1937 to 1967, 251 victims; 1971-1979, 335 victims. Analysis indicated that 84 percent of the accidents were caused by ground leakage on the pylons and 16 percent by collision against power lines and/or arcing contact.
179. *Hall, G.A. 1966. Fall migration: Appalachian region. Audubon Field Notes 20(1):41-45.
Several incidents were reported in fall 1965. A TV tower near Charleston, West Virginia, "produced a steady number of dead birds." On the foggy night of 24 September, "over a truckload" were killed at a microwave relay tower and a gasoline compressor station atop a mountain near Buckhannon, West Virginia. On 1 October, over 1,800 dead birds were found at a ski resort near Gatlinburg, Tennessee.
180. *Hall, G.A. 1968. Fall migration: Appalachian region. Audubon Field Notes 22(1):37-40.
On 7 October 1967, 380 birds (42 species) were killed at a tower atop a ridge near St. Alban's, West Virginia.
181. *Hall, G.A. 1975. The fall migration: Appalachian region. American Birds 29(1):57-61.
In fall 1974, tower kills were reported from Knoxville, Tennessee (no data), and Youngstown, Ohio (268 birds).
182. *Hall, G.A. 1976. The fall migration: Appalachian region. American Birds 30(1):67-71.
In fall 1975, 1,031 dead birds were collected at a Youngstown, Ohio, TV tower and 364 were found at a Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, tower. Near Morgantown, West Virginia, a small kill occurred at a mountaintop fire tower. There was partial correspondence between the tower kills and other migration indicators, such as banding results.
183. *Hall, G.A. 1977. The autumn migration: Appalachian region. American Birds 31(2):176-179.
About 200 birds died at the Youngstown, Ohio, tower in fall 1976, and a kill was reported (no data) at a Morgantown, West Virginia, fire tower on 3 October.
184. Hallinan, T. 1922. Bird interference on high tension electric transmission lines. Auk 39:573.
A turkey vulture, Florida crow, and loggerhead shrike were electrocuted while resting on insulators and metal crossarms of transmission lines in South Jacksonville, Florida, causing flashovers.
185. Hamerstrom, F.N., Jr., B.E. Harrell, and R.R. Olendorff, eds. 1974. Management of raptors -- proceedings of the conference on raptor conservation techniques, Fort Collins, Colorado, 22-24 March 1973. Part 4. Raptor Research Foundation, Inc., Raptor Research Report No. 2.
Excerpts from these raptor conference proceedings include comments on electrocution risk and the use of internal fuses on power poles to decrease power outages. Electrocution risk can increase following a heavy wet snowstorm due to the grounding of poles and wires. Raptor concentration in certain hunting areas may increase after a snowstorm, further increasing the risk of electrocution. It is recommended that utilities determine the high problem areas and concentrate on remedies for those poles.
186. *Hannum, G., W. Anderson, and M. Nelson. 1974. Power lines and birds of prey. Paper presented at Northwest Electric Light and Power Association. Wilson Bulletin 85(4):478.
The Idaho Power Company's program to reduce power line electrocutions of birds of prey is presented, including sketches of design changes for safer poles and conductors.
187. Harris, R.D. 1988. Memo to R. Jurek of California Department of Fish and Game: report of a Golden Eagle mortality. LSA, Pt. Richmond, California. 2 pp.
This memo reports a golden eagle death by power line.
188. Harrison, J. 1963. Heavy mortality of mute swans from electrocution. Wildfowl Trust 14th Annual Report:164-165.
During a two-month period in spring 1962, 30 percent of local swan flocks (21 birds) in Romney Marsh, Kent, England, were killed along 1/4 mile of power lines 30 feet high. No distinction is made between deaths by electrocution or collision. The lines cross between feeding and roosting habitat.
189. *Harwin, R.M. 1971. White stork: longevity record. Ostrich 42(1):81.
In Rhodesia, a white stork struck a power line and died in November 1969, 17 years after it had been banded as a nestling.
190. *Hatch, D.R.M. 1966. Fall migration: northern Great Plains region. Audubon Field Notes 20(1):61-64.
Mention is made of "large kills" of warblers, thrushes, and sparrows at TV towers in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, in late September 1965.
191. Haussler, R.B. 1988. Avian mortality at wind turbine facilities in California. California Energy Commission, Sacramento. 7 pp.
Data obtained by the California Energy Commission indicates that bird collisions and electrocutions are occurring at wind turbine facilities in California. Most documented incidents are due to collision and are from the Altamont Pass area in Alameda County. "Because there is concern over stability of raptor populations, ways to avoid and reduce losses must be incorporated into [hu]man's development activities....Each wind resource area should be considered specifically to determine (1) the significance of ongoing effects, (2) potential for adverse effects due to future development, and (3) the potential to mitigate and/or avoid adverse effects upon avian populations in the future."
192. Heijnis, R. 1976. Ornithological mortality and environmental aspects of aboveground high tension lines. Biological Environmental Research, the Netherlands. 166 pp.
Heijnis remarks that the number of bird deaths from power lines is not excessive but could be significant. Birds living under marginal conditions, due to continual pressures from a number of unfavorable factors could, from a population-dynamic standpoint, be threatened by high tension lines. The author recommends incorporating underground wiring into structural projects or placing all wires at one horizontal level with various marker attachments.
193. Heijnis, R. 1980. Bird mortality from collision with conductors for maximum tension. Okol. Vogel (Ecology of Birds) 2, Sonderheft 1980:111-129. (English summary.)
The study site in Holland is located at the Nature Reserves Westzijderveld and de Reef, a wetland area with a high density of wading birds and waterfowl. Collisions occurred more often under conditions of panic-caused flight, changing visibility of the wires, and windy and rainy weather. Most victims were found at night (33 percent) and at dawn and twilight (23 and 29 percent, respectively). Estimated calculations for the study area show 4,000 wire victims per year per kilometer (150- and 380-kV conductors). The author found that the use of strips and plastic spirals to increase wire visibility brought little or no results; however, silhouettes of raptors made from plastic which were visible in poor light proved to be successful in deterring birds from lines.
194. *Hendrickson, J.R. 1949. A hummingbird casualty. Condor 51:103.
During an aerial display, a male Allen's hummingbird struck a telephone wire and was killed in California.
195. **Herbert, A.D. 1970. Spatial disorientation in birds. Wilson Bulletin 82(4):400-419.
The author proposes that bird collisions with human-made lighted structures occur when the birds become spatially disoriented within a bright light because of the loss of true visual cues to the horizontal. The light source may be either a direct beam, such as an airport ceilometer, or the refracted and reflected light from the aircraft warning lights on tall towers during rainy, misty weather. The author illustrates his theory using the case of 58 blackburnian warblers that were killed flying into brightly lit buildings at a Royal Canadian Air Force Base in September 1961 and published accounts by various authors in the literature.
196. *Herndon, L.R. 1973. Bird kill on Holston Mountain. Migrant 44(1):1-4.
At two installations near Elizabethton, Tennessee, 1,801 birds (44 species) were killed by colliding with floodlit buildings and two small (125 and 85 feet) towers. The weather was foggy with northwesterly winds on 30 September and 1 October 1972 when the losses occurred. A kill list is given.
197. *Herren, H. 1969. The status of the peregrine falcon in Switzerland. Pages 231-238 in: J. Hickey. Peregrine falcon populations: their biology and decline. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin.
Of 14 dead peregrine falcons examined between 1952 and 1965, five had collided with wires. Overhead wires are the main cause of eagle owl fatalities and have contributed to the extermination of the species in much of its former range in Switzerland.
198. *Heye, P.L. 1963. Tower fatalities. Bluebird 30(1):7.
Over 300 birds (47 species) are listed from the kill at the KFVS-TV tower in Cape Girardeau, Missouri, during fall 1962.199. *Hiltunen, E. 1953. On electric and telephone wire accidents in birds. Suomen Riista 8:70-76, 222-223. (In Finnish; English summary.) Capercallie, black grouse, and other game birds were killed in wire collisions primarily in the fall when fog and rain were frequent. Of 225 observed strikes, 76.8 percent were fatal. Over 76 percent of the accidents occurred at twilight.
200. Hobbs, J.C.A. and J.A. Ledger. 1986. Powerlines, birdlife and the golden mean. Fauna and Flora 44:23-27.
The authors discuss the "golden mean" of the South African government's 1980 national policy for environmental conservation, which couples development and conservation, and the conflict of overhead power lines and bird species' welfare. The Bird Research Committee (BRC) has developed strategies to discourage birds from nesting or sitting on the critical part of the tower and avoiding electrocution and/or power outages. Besides cape vultures, martial eagles, and other raptors, a few waterfowl species are highly susceptible to collisions with conductors and groundwires. (The BRC also developed orange aluminum spheres to serve as groundwire markers.) The authors suspect that most waterfowl collisions occur when bird flight activity is greatest (e.g., migration) and when visibility is poor (dusk, dawn, or inclement weather conditions).
201. Holberger, R., L. Morrow, S. Lubores, J. Watson, and F. Williams. 1975. Resource and land investigations program: considerations in evaluating utility line proposals. Prepared by Mitre Corporation, Maclean, Virginia. Propared for U.S. Department of Interior. Contract 08550-CT5-3, Project No. 3500, Dept. W-54.
Potential electrocution of raptors and other large birds by power lines is mentioned, specifically lines supplying electricity for pumping or compressing gas or oil through pipelines. Because distribution lines have relatively close spacing of conductors and ground wires, they pose more of an electrocution risk than transmission lines. The authors note that "such electrocutions can be...prevented by application of simple measures in engineering lines for distribution of electric power."
202. Holyoak, D. 1971. Movements and mortality of Corvidae. Bird Study 16:97-106.
In England, small numbers of corvids were killed by road traffic and by flying into overhead wires. The author notes they probably died "because of inexperience with these hazards."
203 *Hoskin, J. 1975. Casualties at the CKVR-TV tower, Barrie. Nature Canada 4(2):39-40.
During August and September 1974, 4,900 dead birds were collected at the newly constructed, 1,000-foot tower in Ontario, Canada. Large kills occurred in September on the 10th (409 birds), 13th (704), 14th (371), and 21st (1,523). Among the casualties were 1,000 bay-breasted warblers and 900 ovenbirds. Other species with high losses were the northern parula, northern waterthrush, Cape May warbler, and rose-breasted grosbeak.
204. Howard, R.P. and J.F. Gore, eds. 1980. Proceedings of workshop on raptors and energy developments, Boise, Idaho, 25-26 January 1980. Presented by the Idaho Chapter of the Wildlife Society, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Idaho Power Company. 125 pp.
Eleven papers on raptors and energy developments were presented at the 1980 meeting of the Idaho Chapter of the Wildlife Society. This symposium served "as a midstream review of where we are and what directions we want to explore." Topics covered include nuclear facility impacts, electrocution, raptor use of power poles, raptor protection activities, and positive and negative impacts of power structures. A list of workshop participants is given.
205. Howe, M.A. 1989. Migration of radio-marked whooping cranes from the Aransas-Wood Buffalo population: patterns of habitat use, behavior, and survival. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, Maryland. Technical Report 21. 33 pp.
In fall 1981, 1982, and 1983 and spring 1983 and 1984, the use of migration stopovers by radio-marked whooping cranes between Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, Texas, and central Saskatchewan, Canada, was studied. A juvenile died during migration after colliding with a power line in October 1981 near Glaslyn, Saskatchewan. After completing its first two migrations, a subadult was found dead under telephone lines near Waco, Texas, in October 1982.
206. Howell, J.A. and J.E. DiDonato. 1991. Assessment of avian use and mortality related to wind turbine operations: Altamont Pass, Alameda and Contra Costa Counties. Submitted to U.S. Windpower, Inc., Livermore, California. 72 pp.
From September 1988 to September 1989, 359 wind turbines were sampled for bird mortality, yielding 42 bird recoveries. Site differences were significant: multiple strikes tended to occur at swales (depressions) and hill shoulders where ridge lines had a stairstep effect. Some species, particularly golden eagles, were more susceptible to impacts from wind turbines. The authors express concern that the number of golden eagle mortalities at U.S. Windpower's facility may have a significant impact on local populations. In addition, the authors recommend that hypotheses about the relationship of visibility, topography, and mortality should be tested to evaluate methods to reduce avian mortality in the Altamont Pass, California.
207. Howell, J.A., J. Noone, and C. Wardner. 1991. Visual experiment to reduce avian mortality related to wind turbine operations: Altamont Pass, Alameda and Contra Costa Counties. Submitted to U.S. Windpower, Inc., Livermore, California. 28 pp.
Three hypotheses about bird collision and wind turbines in the Altamont Pass were tested from August 1988 to August 1989: birds can not see the blades under specific conditions, collisions tend to occur at ends of turbine strings, and collisions tend to occur at swales or hill shoulders. During the study, ten dead birds were found beneath turbines. Increasing turbine blade visibility appeared to reduce the number of collisions. It was not clearly determined that specific locations are foci for mortality, although site-specific variation did exist. "Additional trials with more sample plots, different painting patterns, and colors will confirm or deny these results."
208. Huckabee, J.W. 1980. Effects of power lines and poles on birds. R & D Status Report, Energy Analysis and Environment Division. EPRI Journal (March):49-50.
This report notes that certain utility poles are preferred by eagles and therefore pose greater risk than poles never used as roosting sites. The author recommends that "preferred" poles be determined by analysis of surrounding vegetation as prey habitat and that these poles be corrected. There is a need for data on collision mortality, changes in behavior from the presence of lines, electromagnetic fields, audible noise, and visual coronas. This report outlines two future projects to study these effects on avian populations.
209. Icanberry, J. 1991. Reducing bird-power line collisions. Pacific Gas and Electric, R & D Program Research Results (August). San Ramon, California. 2 pp.
Researchers developed a prototype collision detection system to measure power line vibrations and distinguish bird collisions from other causes of power line movement. "The new system will allow PG&E for the first time to accurately quantify the impact of existing and proposed overhead wires on bird populations, and to develop suitable collision mitigation measures." The system is available for use on energized power lines maintaining an average load of 15 amperes.
210. James, B.W. and B.A. Haak. 1979. Factors affecting avian flight behavior and collision mortality at transmission lines. Final report. Bonneville Power Administration, Portland, Oregon. 106 pp.
Flight intensity and mortality were highest in fall. Birds flushed from near the lines appeared more susceptible to collision than those routinely crossing the lines. Special attention was focused on flight reactions during inclement weather, specifically fog. Collisions were observed under a variety of environmental conditions, including clear weather, and during both day and night. No definitive relationship was found between inclement weather and increased collision mortality. Fast flying birds in tight flocks at low altitude were most susceptible to collisions. The majority of collisions (83 percent) were the result of birds striking groundwires. "Avian collision mortality from transmission lines in this study was biologically insignificant. However, bird flight altitudes were altered in the vicinity of the lines. Birds flew higher over line structures thus adversely affecting hunting potential in the immediate vicinity of the line (0.5 km)."
211. *James, D. and H.H. Shugart, Jr. 1967. Fall migration: central southern region. Audubon Field Notes 21(1):45-47.
The comparatively low kill at the Nashville, Tennessee, towers in fall 1966 was attributed to mild weather.
212. *James, P. 1956. Destruction of warblers on Padre Island, Texas, in May 1951. Wilson Bulletin 68(3):224-227.
Following the rainy, stormy night of 5 May 1951, 2,421 dead birds (39 species, mostly warblers) were collected beneath light poles on this coastal island.
213. *Janssen, R.B. 1963a. Destruction of birdlife in Minnesota - Sept. 1963. Birds killed at the Lewisville television tower. Flicker 35(4):110-111.
On the nights of 18 and 19 September, 924 birds (47 species) were killed at the 1,116-foot KEYC-TV tower. The nights were cloudy with drizzle. A list of the casualties is given.
214. Janssen, R.B. 1963b. Destruction of birdlife in Minnesota - Sept. 1963. Television towers in Minnesota. Flicker 35(4):113-114.
A list of Minnesota TV towers 500 feet high and over is given. The author notes that these towers are the ones most likely to kill birds. "There are a total of 172 radio and television towers 200 feet in height and over in Minnesota."
215. **Jaroslow, B. 1979. A review of factors involved in bird-tower kills, and mitigative procedures. Pages 469-473 in: G.A. Swanson, tech. coord. The mitigation symposium: a national workshop on mitigation losses of fish and wildlife habitats. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report RM-65.
Estimated losses of between 5 million and 80 million birds annually, due to collisions with human-made structures, are attributed to three major factors: invisibility, deception, and confusion. An overhead wire or other structure becomes "invisible," and hence hazardous, when a bird's attention is directed elsewhere, such as toward the pursuit of prey. Deception is exemplified by birds colliding with windows because the reflected image is perceived as an actual flight path or habitat. Confusion results in large single-night kills at tall, lighted structures when, under overcast conditions, birds are deprived of celestial cues and lose their orientation. Behavioral aspects of the collision problem are discussed in the contexts of various theories of bird navigation on orientation. Mitigative measures include better siting of overhead wires, altering the reflectivity of glass surfaces, eliminating unnecessary structure illumination, and developing an appropriate on-off cycle for warning lights on tall structures.
216. *Jarvis, M.J.F. 1974. High tension power lines as a hazard to larger birds. Ostrich 45:262.
In South Africa, a European stork struck a power line, and 30 cape vultures were electrocuted on a power line over a ten-year period. The vultures perched on pylons and were killed as they wiped their beaks on the wire.
217. *Jennings, A.R. 1961. An analysis of 1,000 deaths in wild birds. Bird Study 8(1):25-31.
In England, traumatic injury (shooting and collisions) accounted for 327 of 1,000 avian deaths analyzed.
218. *Johnston, D. 1955. Mass bird mortality in Georgia, October 1954. Oriole 20(2):17-26.
Details of seven incidents in Georgia during 6-8 October 1954 are presented. The largest kill occurred at the Warner Robins Air Force Base ceilometer near Macon, Georgia, where an estimated 50,000 birds died. A widespread cold front was associated with these incidents.
219. *Johnston, D.W. 1957. Bird mortality in Georgia, 1957. Oriole 22(4):33-39.
Fall bird losses totalling 4,189 (78 species) are listed from several towers, two ceilometers, and one lighthouse in Georgia and South Carolina. Most of the losses occurred on the night of 4 October when rain and cloudy weather prevailed.
220. Johnston, D.W. and T.P. Haines. 1957. Analysis of mass bird mortality in October, 1954. Auk 74(4):447-458.
During 5-8 October 1954, coinciding with an advancing cold front, 25 instances of mortality totalling over 100,000 birds (88 species) were reported from ceilometers, towers, and buildings in the eastern U.S. The most commonly killed species were the ovenbird, magnolia warbler, red-eyed vireo, and chestnut-sided warbler. Sex and age composition, weight, fat content, and subspecific composition were analyzed in 2,552 birds killed on 7-8 October at a ceilometer near Macon, Georgia, where an estimated total of 50,000 birds (53 species) died. The massive bird mortalities were primarily associated with nocturnal fall migration.
221. Judd, P.L. 1910. News notes. Oologist 27(4):51.
Snipes killed by flying into wires were found on 22 June 1909 near Rathdrum, Indiana.
222. Jurek, R.M. 1994. Condor information leaflet. California Department of Fish and Game, Sacramento. 4 pp.
Of eight California condors released into the wild in 1992, three were killed from collision or electrocution at power lines.
223. Kaiser, G.W. and K. Fry. 1980. Ingestion of lead shot by dunlin. Murrelet 61(1):37.
At the Fraser River delta of southwestern British Columbia, Canada, 54 dunlin were recorded killed by collision with electrical transmission cables near roosts and feeding areas from 1977 to 1979. Of these, five had pellets of uneroded #4 and #5 shot in their gizzards. "There was no apparent difference between the five birds that contained shot and those that did not."
224 *Kale, H.II. 1971. The spring migration: Florida region. American Birds 25(4):723-725, 730-735.
Bird kills (2,500 birds, 42 species of mostly warblers) are reported from five towers and several buildings on Cape Kennedy in a one-month period.
225. *Kale, H.W., II, M.H. Hundley, and J.A. Tucker. 1969. Tower-killed specimens and observations of migrant birds from Grand Bahama Island. Wilson Bulletin 81(3):258-263.
During the night of 21 October 1966, 136 birds (22 species) were killed at two small towers (200 and 400 ft). About half of the kill consisted of gray-cheeked thrushes and blackpoll warblers. Weather conditions are discussed.
226. Karlsson, J. 1983a. Faaglar och vindcraft: resultat rapport 1977-1982 (Birds and wind power: result report 1972-1982). U.S. Government Reports 84(23). Available from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as DE84751012. 12 pp. (In Swedish; English summary.)
Two large wind generators were erected in Sweden in 1980-82 on arable land and in grazed bushland habitat. Census results did not indicate any effect on bird species diversity or abundance up to 1982. Reactions of migrating birds were to be studied in fall 1983, when the generators would be in continuous operation.
227. Karlsson, J. 1983b. Faaglar och vindcraft: teknisk rapport 1977-1982 (Birds and wind power: technical report 1972-1982). U.S. Government Reports 84(23). Available from National Technical Information Service (NTIS) as DE84751013. 160 pp. (In Swedish; no translation.)
228. *Kemper, C.A. 1958. Destruction at the TV tower. Passenger Pigeon 20(1):3-9.
In fall 1957, three large kills, including one estimated at 20,000 birds (based on 1,525 of 40 species collected), were reported from the 1,000-foot Eau Claire, Wisconsin, TV tower. Warblers dominated the kill lists.
229. *Kemper, C.A. 1959. More TV tower destruction. Passenger Pigeon 21(4):135-142.
The tower at Eau Claire, Wisconsin, produced only light kills in 1958 and 300 deaths in spring 1959. Over 2,500 birds (65 species) were killed in fall 1959. The author lists the 1959 kills and discusses weather conditions during the five major kills in 1957 and 1959. He also presents a theory explaining massive tower kills involving the birds's supposed ability to detect geomagnetic lines of force.
230. *Kemper, C.A. 1964. A tower for TV: 30,000 dead birds. Audubon Magazine 66(1):86-90.
An estimated 30,000 birds were killed at the Eau Claire, Wisconsin, tower on the nights of 18 and 19 September 1963. Lists of the 10,195 birds (56 species) actually collected, and of 924 birds (47 species) killed on 20-21 September at Lewisville, Minnesota, are given. To explain the mass mortality of birds at towers, a theory is proposed in which migrants attempt to maintain a constant bearing with respect to the red tower lights (perceiving them as stars) and spiral closer to the structure, eventually striking guy wires.
231. Kennedy, P.L. 1980. Raptor baseline studies in energy development. Wildlife Society Bulletin 8(2):129-135.
Accurate assessment of the impacts of energy development on raptor populations in the U.S. are examined, focusing mainly on land disturbance caused by surface coal mining. In order to properly assess the long-term impacts on raptor populations, site-specific studies must be conducted. The author recommends ecological studies on these populations as raptors are good indicator species of total ecosystem health. In addition, since several raptor species are threatened or endangered, industrial impacts may accelerate population decline and ultimately bring about extinction.
232. Keran, D. 1981. The incidence of man-caused and natural mortalities to raptors. Raptor Research 15(4):108-112.
This U.S. study summarizes human-caused and natural mortalities to raptors through analysis of personal observations, data on band return frequency, maximum recorded longevity, and average survival for 24 raptor species. No mention of electrocution- or collision-caused mortalities is made other than collision with autos; however, a category called "other may include these.
233. Keran, D. 1986. Bald eagle nest on a power pole. Loon 58(3):142.
This is an account of a bald eagle nest found on an osprey nest site on a power pole near Outing, Minnesota. The nest was sighted on 22 April 1986 and two young eagles were spotted in it two months later.
234. Kibbe, D.P. 1975. The fall migration: western New York and northwestern Pennsylvania. American Birds 29(1):53-57.
On the cloudy evening of 21 September 1974, the largest recorded tower kill at the Elmira, New York, TV tower occurred. At least 844 birds (35 species) were killed, bringing the season's total kill at that tower to over 1,200 (44 species).
235. *Kibbe, D.P. 1976. The fall migration: Niagara-Champlain region. American Birds 30(1):64-66.
Over 800 dead birds (40 species) were collected at the Elmira, New York, TV tower on 19 September 1975 following a night of low overcast. Included were 198 bay-breasted warblers, 110 magnolia warblers, and 78 ovenbirds. A kill at an Erie County, New York, tower on 8 September included five pine warblers.
236. Kingery, H.E. 1971. The spring migration: Great Basin-central Rocky Mountain region. American Birds 25(4):774-780.
In Wyoming and Colorado, over 78 bald and golden eagles were electrocuted at power lines in spring 1971.
237. Kirtland, K. 1985. Wind implementation monitoring programs: a study of collisions of migrating birds with wind machines. Tierra Madre Consultants. Riverside County Planning Department, Riverside, California. Unpublished report. 12 pp.
Three wind parks in